Table 2. Ecological characteristics of the investigated wolf populations at the time of sample collection.
| Study area | Wolf density a (ind./ 1000km) | Main prey species b | Prey base c | Logging and hunting activities in part of the territory of the studied packs d | Recovered dead wolves during years of study (p/c/n/u) e | Dogs f | Density / status of free-ranging dogs g |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Abruzzo | 50 | Varied: mainly wild boar, but also roe deer, red deer and domestic ungulates | Not limiting | Yes | 10/1/4/3 | Pet dogs, working dogs, and stray and feral dogs | High / tolerated, roaming as single or in groups |
| Mercantour | 11.5 | Varied: mainly chamois and roe deer, but also red deer, ibex, European mouflon, wild boar, and few domestic ungulates (sheep and goats) | Not limiting | Yes | 1/2/0/0 | Pet dogs and working dogs | Very low / prohibited (controlled) |
| Yellowstone | 50 | Specific: ≥ 96% red deer; few bison, mule deer, white-tailed deer, and moose | Not limiting | Negligible | 0/2/32/4 | Pet dogs | Inexistent / prohibited (controlled) |
Abruzzo: Abruzzo, Lazio e Molise National Park; Mercantour: Mercantour National Park; Yellowstone: Yellowstone National Park; ind.: individuals.
a Abruzzo: mean estimated value [66]; Mercantour: calculated as the mean number of wolves per pack divided by the mean estimated size of packs' territory in the park (estimated territory size: 260–350km2, [67,68]); Yellowstone: information for the northern range of the park [69].
b Wolf fecal samples collected in Abruzzo and Mercantour were submitted to dietary analyses (Abruzzo: P. Ciucci and collaborators, [66]; Mercantour: C. Duchamp and collaborators, [70,71]). In Yellowstone, main prey species were assessed through close monitoring of packs [48–50,67].
e Wolves recovered in the study areas and adjacent areas expected to belong to the territory of wolf packs resident of the park. Cause of death: poaching / collision / natural (intraspecific strife)/ unknown. Abruzzo: 2006–2008 (Gentile pers. comm.); Mercantour: 2005–2007 (Millischer pers. comm.); Yellowstone: 2007–2009 (Smith pers. comm.). Five of the 32 individuals who died from natural causes in Yellowstone were members of the studied packs. No such information is available for the two other study areas.
Note: No wolf was legally destroyed in Mercantour or in Abruzzo in the years of sample collection. In Yellowstone, wolf hunting and trapping season first opened in September 2009, a few months after our sample collection was finished; four members of resident packs where legally shot before the end of the year.
f Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) travelling with tourists are prohibited in Abruzzo, allowed in the buffer zone but excluded from the core area of Mercantour, and restricted to a range of 100 yards off roads and parking lots in Yellowstone. Working dogs are shepherd dogs and livestock-guarding dogs.