Fig 3. Relationships among management practices, soil inherent productivity and yield gap.

Note: soil inherent productivity was estimated as yield in zero-N plots (Yield-N0). Yield gaps were estimated as differences between yields in farming practice on soils with various productivity levels and ‘attainable yields’, determined as mean yields of the 20% highest-yielding locations under BMPs. (a), early rice (n = 98); (b), late rice (n = 148); (c), single rice (n = 157).