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. 2015 Aug 28;4(9):1741–1752. doi: 10.3390/jcm4091741

Figure 2.

Figure 2

Schematic view of tumor-induced osteoclast formation. Bone-derived growth factors (IGFs, TGF-β and other growth factors) are released by osteoclastic bone resorption. These factors promote tumor cell proliferation and survival. TGF-β acts on tumor cells to produce growth factors, such as PTHrP and IL-11. PTHrP acts on osteoblasts and stromal cells and promotes the expression of RANKL, resulting in the enhancement of osteoclastogenesis and destruction of bone. Osteoclasts secrete extracellular vesicles (EVs) containing specific microRNAs, such as miR-21, miR-210, and miR-378. miR-16 and miR-378 are secreted biomarkers for osteolytic bone metastasis.