Table 2.
Demographic, social and behavioral determinants of vitamin D status in healthy adult females (n = 215)
| Determinants | 25(OH) D < 50 nmol/l | Univariate analysis | Multivariate analysis | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Odds ratio (95 % CI) | p-value | dAdjusted odds ratio (95 % CI) | p-value | |||
| Age | 15–30 years | 90/134 (67 %) | Ref | - | Ref | - |
| 31–45 years | 66/81 (81 %) | 2.15 (1.10–4.18) | 0.02 | 1.63 (0.74–3.58) | 0.22 | |
| Settings | University students | 60/92 (65 %) | 1.7 (0.83–3.44) | 0.14 | ||
| Religious institutes | 45/56 (80 %) | 0.78 (0.32–1.92) | 0.60 | |||
| Employed | 51/67 (76 %) | Ref | - | |||
| Month of recruitment | January-Marcha | 85/104 (81 %) | 2.51 (1.34–4.73) | 0.004 | 2.38 (1.20–4.70) | 0.01 |
| April-Julyb | 71/111 (64 %) | Ref | - | Ref | - | |
| Marital status | Single | 53/84 (63 %) | Ref | - | Ref | - |
| Married | 103/131 (78 %) | 2.15 (1.17–3.95) | 0.01 | 1.49 (0.72–3.09) | 0.27 | |
| Education | Illiterate | 24/27 (89 %) | 4.12 (1.15–14.71) | 0.03 | 4.0 (1.03–15.52) | 0.04 |
| 5–10 years | 68/91 (75 %) | 2.70 (0.74–9.8) | 0.13 | 2.71 (0.68–10.72) | 0.15 | |
| 11–16 years | 64/97 (66 %) | Ref | - | Ref | - | |
| Income | Lower income | 54/77 (70 %) | 1.02 (0.47–2.21) | 0.95 | ||
| Intermediate income | 66/87 (76 %) | 0.70 (0.35–1.66) | 0.56 | |||
| Higher income | 36/51 (70 %) | Ref | - | |||
| Preferred food item | Homemade food | 84/108 (78 %) | Ref | - | Ref | - |
| Junk food | 72/107 (67 %) | 1.70 (0.92–13.12) | 0.08 | 1.31 (0.67–2.57) | 0.42 | |
| Body exposure | Full body covered/veil | 70/114 (61 %) | 1.60 (0.93–2.75) | 0.31 | ||
| Some parts exposed | 86/101 (85 %) | Ref | - | |||
| Sun exposure time/day | ≤30 min | 89/116 (77 %) | 2.09 (1.14–43.85) | 0.01 | 2.13 (1.08–4.19) | 0.02 |
| >30 min | 67/99 (68 %) | Ref | - | Ref | ||
| Milk intake | Yes | 61/92 (66 %) | Ref | - | Ref | - |
| No | 95/123 (77 %) | 1.72 (0.94–3.15) | 0.07 | 1.46 (0.74–2.88) | 0.26 | |
| Province/place of origin | Punjabi | 109/150 (73 %) | Ref | - | ||
| Othersc | 47/65 (72 %) | 1.01 (0.53–1.95) | 0.95 | |||
| BMI | <25 kg/m2 | 87/126 (69 %) | Ref | - | ||
| ≥25 kg/m2 | 69/89 (77 %) | 1.54 (0.82–2.8) | 0.17 | |||
| Use of a multivitamin supplement | Yes | 32/78 (41 %) | Ref | - | Ref | - |
| No | 124/137 (90 %) | 2.56 (1.38–4.74) | 0.002 | 2.61 (1.32–5.16) | 0.005 | |
25(OH) D 25- hydroxy vitamin D, Ref Reference Category
aWinter, samples recruited in January, February and March
bSummer, samples recruited in April, May, June and July
cOthers, people from NWFP (North West Ffrontier Pakistan) and Gilgit Baltistan
dAdjusted for age, month of recruitment, marital status, education, preferred food item, sun exposure time/day, milk intake and regular intake of a multi vitamin supplement