TABLE 3—
Multilevel Logistic Regression Models for Any Type of Spousal Violence in the Last 12 Months Among Currently Married Women in 5 Former Soviet Union Countries: 2005–2012
| Eastern Europe |
Caucasus |
Central Asia |
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| Variables | Moldova, OR (95% CI) | Ukraine, OR (95% CI) | Azerbaijan, OR (95% CI) | Kyrgyzstan, OR (95% CI) | Tajikistan, OR (95% CI) | Tajikistan (With Interactions), OR (95% CI) |
| Constant | 0.08*** (0.04, 0.13) | 0.08*** (0.04, 0.16) | 0.03*** (0.01, 0.08) | 0.04*** (0.02, 0.08) | 0.04*** (0.01, 0.10) | 0.07*** (0.02, 0.23) |
| Sociodemographics | ||||||
| Woman’s education | 0.92*** (0.88, 0.96) | 0.96 (0.91, 1.01) | 0.97 (0.93, 1.02) | 1.03 (0.99, 1.08) | 0.96* (0.92, 0.99) | 0.96* (0.92, 0.99) |
| Partner’s education | 0.91*** (0.88, 0.95) | 0.95 (0.90, 1.00) | 0.97 (0.93, 1.01) | 0.98 (0.94, 1.01) | 0.99 (0.96, 1.03) | 0.99 (0.96, 1.03) |
| Poor household wealth | 1.81*** (1.37, 2.40) | 1.04 (0.65, 1.66) | 0.78 (0.57, 1.05) | 0.89 (0.71, 1.11) | 0.92 (0.67, 1.26) | 0.92 (0.67, 1.26) |
| Family risk factors | ||||||
| Father beating mother | 2.02*** (1.70, 2.40) | 2.70*** (1.93, 3.78) | 2.10*** (1.67, 2.65) | 3.02*** (2.45, 3.71) | 2.26*** (1.76, 2.91) | 2.26*** (1.76, 2.91) |
| Partner’s drinking problem (Ref: no) | 3.36*** (2.71, 4.16) | 3.11*** (2.23, 4.34) | 2.22*** (1.77, 2.79) | 3.60*** (3.03, 4.28) | 3.26*** (2.63, 4.05) | 3.26*** (2.62, 4.05) |
| Women’s empowerment | ||||||
| Has decision-making autonomy (Ref: no) | 0.58*** (0.44, 0.77) | 0.49** (0.31, 0.78) | 0.66*** (0.51, 0.85) | 0.91 (0.71, 1.17) | 1.02 (0.82, 1.29) | 1.03 (0.82, 1.29) |
| Accepts attitudes justifying wife-beating (Ref: no) | 1.39*** (1.14, 1.70) | 1.79** (1.15, 2.79) | 2.41*** (1.85, 3.15) | 2.69*** (2.22, 3.25) | 1.50*** (1.20, 1.89) | 3.12** (1.47, 6.60) |
| Believes woman cannot refuse sex (Ref: no) | 0.89 (0.74, 1.08) | 1.67** (1.19, 2.33) | 1.27* (1.02, 1.59) | 0.82 (0.62, 1.08) | 1.06 (0.86, 1.31) | 1.06 (0.86, 1.31) |
| Woman’s earning relative to husband (Ref: about the same) | ||||||
| Woman earns more or husband doesn’t earn | 0.92 (0.67, 1.26) | 1.31 (0.73, 2.34) | 1.22 (0.56, 2.69) | 1.82* (1.10, 3.02) | 2.10 (0.89, 4.99) | 2.09 (0.88, 5.01) |
| Woman earns less | 0.70* (0.54, 0.92) | 1.00 (0.67, 1.51) | 1.03 (0.53, 2.03) | 1.39 (0.98, 1.98) | 2.19* (1.08, 4.47) | 2.24* (1.09, 4.61) |
| Woman doesn’t earn | 0.60*** (0.46, 0.79) | 0.78 (0.48, 1.27) | 0.93 (0.51, 1.72) | 1.32 (0.97, 1.81) | 2.12* (1.05, 4.27) | 2.16* (1.06, 4.38) |
| Perceived control over husband’s earnings (Ref: jointly) | ||||||
| Woman alone or husband has no earnings | 1.23* (1.00, 1.50) | 1.89** (1.28, 2.80) | 1.12 (0.81, 1.55) | 0.81 (0.57, 1.17) | 1.00 (0.73, 1.36) | 1.00 (0.73, 1.36) |
| Woman has no control | 2.02*** (1.47, 2.79) | 2.00** (1.20, 3.34) | 1.46** (1.14, 1.88) | 1.02 (0.79, 1.32) | 1.21 (0.96, 1.53) | 1.20 (0.95, 1.52) |
| Community-level factors | ||||||
| Community poverty | 0.33** (0.16, 0.66) | 1.62 (0.66, 3.98) | 2.71** (1.42, 5.19) | 1.57 (0.87, 2.82) | 0.66 (0.34, 1.28) | 0.64 (0.33, 1.25) |
| Community acceptance of wife-beating | 2.33* (1.12, 4.88) | 1.34 (0.94, 1.90) | 1.11 (0.48, 2.56) | 1.40 (0.71, 2.78) | 0.52 (0.26, 1.01) | 1.03 (0.40, 2.65) |
| Community female financial dependency | 1.26 (0.61, 2.59) | 0.47 (0.16, 1.39) | 0.46 (0.15, 1.47) | 0.31** (0.14, 0.72) | 1.23 (0.52, 2.90) | 0.41 (0.12, 1.47) |
| Interactions | ||||||
| Community acceptance of wife-beating × woman’s tolerance of wife-beating | 0.32* (0.10, 0.98) | |||||
| Community female financial dependency × rural | 6.52* (1.30, 32.74) | |||||
| Random effects | ||||||
| Intercept only (empty) model | ||||||
| Intraclass correlation | 0.08 | 0.15 | 0.13 | 0.08 | 0.19 | 0.19 |
| Community-level variance (SE) | 0.28*** (0.07) | 0.57*** (0.18) | 0.49*** (0.11) | 0.28*** (0.06) | 0.77*** (0.13) | 0.77*** (0.13) |
| Intercept as outcome model | ||||||
| Intraclass correlation | 0.04 | 0.13 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.09 | 0.10 |
| Community-level variance (SE) | 0.15** (0.06) | 0.49*** (0.19) | 0.10 (0.07) | 0.13*** (0.05) | 0.33*** (0.09) | 0.35*** (0.09) |
| No. of observations | 4053 | 1932 | 3932 | 4361 | 4093 | 4093 |
| No. of clusters | 400 | 485 | 318 | 316 | 355 | 355 |
Note. CI = confidence interval; OR = odds ratio. All models are adjusted for age, rural/urban residence and country’s geographic regions. Measures of woman’s and partner’s education are centered around the grand mean.
*P < .05; **P < .01; ***P < .001.