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. 2015 Oct 15;5:230. doi: 10.3389/fonc.2015.00230

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Copyright © 2015 Vigneri, Tirrò, Pennisi, Massimino, Stella, Romano and Manzella.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Expression and function of the insulin/IGF system in normal and colorectal cancer cells. (A) In normal tissue insulin, IGF-1 and IGF-2 bind with high (continuous line) or low (dashed line) affinity to their corresponding receptors and activate specific IRSs, which modulate several pathways involved in gene transcription, cell proliferation, and apoptosis. IGFBPs act as negative regulators that modulate both IGF-1 and IGF-2 functions. (B) In colorectal cancer high IR-A and IGF-1R expression (upward arrow) as well as IRS-1 and IRS-2 polymorphisms are involved in up-regulation of the PI3K-Akt pathway. Moreover, IGFPB3 down-regulation (downward arrow) as well as IGFBP2 overexpression (upward arrow) are involved in strengthening IGF-1 functions and in the activation of intracellular signaling pathways that contribute to alter gene transcription, cellular proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis.