Table 3. Baseline Characteristics by Opioid Use (n=396).
| Characteristics | Opioid Usea | Pb | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Any Non-prescribed Opioid Use (n=228) | Opioid Use Only as Prescribed (n=168) | ||
| Demographics | |||
| Age, mean in years (SD) | 48.4 (10.5) | 49.6 (9.6) | 0.25 |
| Male | 68.9% | 67.3% | 0.74 |
| Racec | |||
| White | 49.3% | 49.4% | 1.00 |
| Black | 32.9% | 32.9% | |
| Other | 17.8% | 17.7% | |
| Hispanic | 11.0% | 7.3% | 0.24 |
| Marital status | |||
| Married/living with partner | 20.2% | 23.4% | 0.63 |
| Divorced/separated/widowed | 43.4% | 44.3% | |
| Never married | 36.4% | 32.3% | |
| Education | |||
| High school or less | 22.0% | 17.9% | 0.52 |
| High school graduate | 24.7% | 23.8% | |
| Beyond high school | 53.3% | 58.3% | |
| Employment status | |||
| Working | 7.0% | 7.1% | 0.83 |
| Unemployed/retired/in school/homemaker/other | 22.8% | 20.2% | |
| Disabled and unable to work | 70.2% | 72.6% | |
| Homeless in shelter or on street ≥1 night in past 90 daysd | 33.2% | 20.8% | 0.01 |
| Medical | |||
| Emergency departmente | |||
| Any (%) | 68.7% | 65.4% | 0.50 |
| Mean visits (SD) | 3.0 (4.9) | 2.4 (3.9) | 0.19 |
| Mean cost (SD) | $1,550.34 ($2,526.56) | $1,388.38 ($2,772.55) | 0.55 |
| Median visits | 1.0 | 1.0 | |
| Median cost | $625.39 | $423.70 | |
| Outpatient medicale | |||
| Any (%) | 93.4% | 95.1% | 0.49 |
| Mean visits (SD) | 19.5 (18.1) | 24.3 (19.2) | 0.01 |
| Mean cost (SD) | $7,651.65 ($9,823.59) | $8,787.94 ($9,265.75) | 0.25 |
| Median visits | 15.0 | 20.0 | |
| Median cost | $4,742.62 | $6,572.43 | |
| Inpatient medicale | |||
| Any (%) | 34.8% | 34.6% | 0.96 |
| Mean admissions (SD) | 0.6 (1.2) | 0.6 (1.1) | 0.94 |
| Mean cost (SD) | $10,229.75 ($34,394.72) | $10,140.79 ($23,337.68) | 0.98 |
| Median admissions | 0.0 | 0.0 | |
| Median cost | $0.00 | $0.00 | |
| ASI Medical Status composite score, mean (SD)f | 0.70 (0.32) | 0.77 (0.25) | 0.02 |
| CDPS medical conditions, mean (SD)e | 8.0 (3.6) | 8.7 (3.4) | 0.06 |
| EQ-5D score, mean (SD) | 0.65 (0.22) | 0.63 (0.21) | 0.24 |
| EQ-5D Item 4: “I have moderate pain or discomfort” or “I have extreme pain or discomfort” | 80.7% | 94.1% | < 0.001 |
| Psychiatric | |||
| ≥1 Mental illness ICD-9 diagnosise | 70.0% | 70.4% | 0.94 |
| Prescribed medication for psychological or emotion problems, lifetime | 78.5% | 77.4% | 0.79 |
| Substance Use/Treatment | |||
| ASI days most frequently used drug, mean (SD)g | 16.35 (10.63) | 13.92 (11.24) | 0.03 |
| ASI Drug Use composite score, mean (SD)f,g | 0.17 (0.13) | 0.10 (0.08) | <0.001 |
| ASI drug use, any in past 30 days h | |||
| Marijuana | 67.1% | 83.9% | < 0.001 |
| Medical Marijuana | 7.5% | 26.2% | < 0.001 |
| Stimulants | 53.9% | 33.3% | < 0.001 |
| Cocaine | 47.8% | 31.0% | < 0.001 |
| Amphetamines | 12.3% | 3.6% | < 0.001 |
| Opioids | 100.0% | 100.0% | < 0.001 |
| Heroin | 25.9% | 0.0% | < 0.001 |
| Methadone non-prescribed | 21.9% | 0.0% | < 0.001 |
| Methadone prescribed | 4.8% | 17.3% | < 0.001 |
| Other opioids/analgesics non-prescribed | 80.3% | 0.0% | < 0.001 |
| Other opioids/analgesics prescribed | 23.2% | 89.9% | < 0.001 |
| Sedatives/hypnotics/tranquilizers | 18.9% | 3.6% | < 0.001 |
| Benzodiazepines non-prescribed | 12.7% | 1.8% | <0.001 |
| Other drugs g, i | 11.4% | 2.4% | < 0.001 |
| 2 or more drugs used in past 30 days g, j | 89.9% | 29.2% | < 0.001 |
| Intravenous drug use past 30 days | 23.8% | 0.6% | < 0.001 |
| Goal of total abstinence from drugsg, k | 43.0% | 33.9% | 0.07 |
| DAST-10 drug use severity, mean score (SD)g | 5.46 (2.69) | 3.54 (2.24) | <0.001 |
| Low (score 1-2) | 14.5% | 41.7% | <0.001 |
| Intermediate (score 3-5) | 40.8% | 38.1% | |
| Substantial/severe (score ≥ 6) | 44.7% | 20.2% | |
| ASI Alcohol Use composite score, mean (SD)f | 0.18 (0.21) | 0.10 (0.15) | <0.001 |
| ASI alcohol use, any in past 30 days | 74.6% | 58.9% | < 0.001 |
| Nicotine use, any in past 30 days | 76.8% | 69.6% | 0.11 |
| CD treatment services | |||
| Admitted to CD treatmente | 23.8% | 9.9% | < 0.001 |
| Detoxification (not followed by CD treatment)e | 9.7% | 5.6% | 0.14 |
| Other Psychosocial | |||
| Arrests for felony or gross misdemeanore | 14.5% | 13.0% | 0.66 |
| HIV Risk-taking Behaviour score, mean (SD) | 4.5 (5.1) | 2.4 (3.3) | <0.001 |
| ASI Family/Social composite score, mean (SD)f | 0.20 (0.24) | 0.18 (0.22) | 0.41 |
Missing values are not included in this table.
Pvalue based on chi square or ANOVA.
Assessed by self-report using National Institutes of Health reporting categories for federally funded clinical research.
Homeless was defined as spending at least 1 night in the previous 90 either living on the streets, in an abandoned building, in a car, or in a shelter.
Administrative data available for 389 participants for the 2 years prior to enrollment.
ASI composite scores range from 0 to 1, with 1 indicating greatest problem severity.
Excludes use of alcohol or nicotine.
ASI drug use groups reported are not mutually exclusive. The groups reflect illicit or non-prescribed use only unless otherwise indicated.
“Other drugs” can include all other abused medications (e.g., antihistamines, antidepressants) or drugs of abuse (e.g., hallucinogens, inhalants) not included in the existing categories.
Problem drugs or non-prescribed medications.
From the Thoughts About Abstinence measure which is used to assess one's goal for changing drug use (no goal, controlled use, occasional use, temporary abstinence, total abstinence slip is possible, total abstinence never use again). The reported “goal of total abstinence from drugs” includes “total abstinence, never use again” and “total abstinence, slip is possible.”
ASI, Addiction Severity Index; CD, chemical dependency; CDPS, Chronic Illness and Disability Payment System; DAST-10, Drug Abuse Screening Test 10-item; EQ-5D, Euroqol EQ-5D instrument.