*Note: To make groups mutually exclusive with the DTC sample, adults in the convictions sample were also linked to court records from the drug treatment courts. Individuals who were referred to a drug treatment court during our observation window 2000–12 (2.3% of parents) were excluded from the sample.
**Exclusion criteria: Sample was limited to an individual’s first observed conviction; If both parents were convicted, then mother’s information for DTC participation was used; observations with item missingness on covariates or dependent variables were omitted; Children who were missing education outcomes during the window of year before referral to 3 years after referral also were not eligible for inclusion.