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. 2015 Oct 21;6:227. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2015.00227

Table 1.

Schematic comparison of the different animal models used in cardiovascular imaging research.

Specie Model Failure etiology Advantages Disadvantages
CARDIAC HYPERTROPHY
Mouse Transverse aortic and pulmonary artery constriction Acute and pressure overload Easy use of GEM animals. Hypertrophy developed rapidly (2–3 weeks) Surgical skills. Acute hypertension and expense of equipment for cardiovascular imaging and physiology assessment
Mouse Isoproterenol infusion Toxic injury of myocardium Minimal surgery and good scenario for pharmacological or gene therapy Hypertrophy is adjusted to dose and mouse strain
Rat Spontaneous hypertensive rat and Dahl salt-sensitive rat Chronic pressure overload The onset of hypertension is gradual, being the heart failure in later stages. Genetic origin of hypertension. No surgery Long experimental period (6–12 months)
Rat Ascending aortic and pulmonary artery constriction Gradual to quick onset pressure overload Gradual to quick onset hypertension Less GEM animals and similar cost of equipment for cardiovascular physiology assessment than mouse
Rat Arteriovenous shunts Overload of ventricular chambers Progressive heart hypertrophy, more rapidly in the right ventricle. Well tolerate and it possible to reverse the volume-overload state Greater surgical skills, with a grade of hypertrophy fistula localization-dependent
Guinea pig Descending aortic constriction Pressure overload and hypertension Human mimicking alteration of sarcolemma calcium handling Special and expensive requirements for husbandry
Rabbit Aortic and pulmonary constriction Gradual onset pressure overload Imaging technology allows normalizing the grade of constriction. Possibility to reverse the pressure-overload situation Thoracotomy surgery required
Rabbit Doxorrubicin Toxicological aggression Myocyte function and structure modification High risk of mortality dose dependent
Dog Aortovenus shunt Volume overload Progressive heart hypertrophy, more rapidly in the right ventricle Not so well tolerated than rats. Frequent arrhythmias, edema and quick health decrease
Dog Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy of Boxer Desmosomes proteins mutation Genetic origin which mimic the human disease Social ethical considerations
Cat Inherited Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy of Maine Coon and Persian strains Sarcomeric protein gene mutations Genetic origin which mimic the human disease Social ethical considerations
Pig Descending aortic constriction Pressure overload and hypertension Progressive hypertrophy and animal well adapted (constriction grade progresses with animal growth) Surgical skills and lateral thoracotomy
Pig Pulmonary artery hypertension by microembolization Increased vascular resistance Progressive hypertrophy of right ventricle and final heart failure by dilated cardiomyopathy. No surgery Great hypoxic vasoconstriction
Sheep Ascending aortic constriction Pressure overload and hypertension Transition from compensated hypertrophy to left ventricular dysfunction Zoonotic risk
Sheep Pulmonary artery hypertension by microembolization Increased vascular resistance Progressive hypertrophy of right ventricle and final heart failure by dilated cardiomyopathy. No hypoxic vasoconstriction No surgery Zoonotic risk
DILATED CARDIOPATHY
Mouse Genetic Engineering modified animals (GEM) Dilated cardiomyopathy Genetic modifications of structural and functionality of cardiomyocytes. No required surgery Clinical reliability restricted to the molecule of study: e.g., TNF-α overexpression
Rat Isoproterenol toxicity Toxicological aggression Severe structural modification by necrosis and fibrosis of myocardium Less GEM animals and similar cost of equipment for cardiovascular physiology assessment than mouse
Rabbit Pacing Tachycardia Congestive failure by low output Mimic myocardial alteration of human edematous chronic low output Limited imaging technology due to paced heart rate (400 beats/min)
Rabbit Balloon occlusion of circumflex branch of left coronary artery Myocardial infarction Artery occlusion by catheterization Great skill and specific material
Dog Pacing Tachycardia Congestive failure by low output Mimic myocardial remodeling, neurohumoral activation and subcellular dysfunction No hypertrophy
Dog Coronary microembolization Contractile dysfunction and a profound perfusion-contraction mismatch No surgery requirements Microspheres are chemically inert. Extensive arterial pattern of heart. Time consuming
Pig Pacing Tachycardia Congestive failure by low output Mimic myocardial remodeling, neurohumoral activation and subcellular dysfunction No hypertrophy nor fibrosis
Pig Coronary microembolization Contractile dysfunction and a profound perfusion-contraction mismatch No surgery requirements Microsphere are chemically inert
Pig Hibernating myocardium Progressive reduction of ventricle perfusion Mimic human disease condition Surgical technical experience and skill. There is a myocardial recovery in chronic studies
Sheep Pacing Tachycardia Congestive failure by low output Mimic myocardial remodeling, neurohumoral activation and subcellular dysfunction No hypertrophy nor fibrosis
Sheep Coronary microembolization Contractile dysfunction and a profound perfusion-contraction mismatch No surgery requirements and resemble human condition than dog Zoonotic risk. Microspheres are chemically inert. Extensive arterial pattern of heart. Time consuming
MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION
Mouse Left coronary ligation (total occlusion or ischemia/reperfusion) Myocardial infarction Easy use of GEM animals, low cost of husbandry and feasible cardiovascular assessment. Suitability for follow-up and survival studies. Great surgical skill and expensive technological requirements. Limited sample collection (animal size)
Rat Left coronary ligation (total occlusion or ischemia/reperfusion) Myocardial infarction Surgical procedure easier than in mouse and more volume of samples. Lower cost than large animals. Suitability for follow-up and survival studies. Less GEM animals and similar cost of equipment for cardiovascular physiology assessment than mouse
Rabbit Left coronary ligation (total occlusion or ischemia/reperfusion) Myocardial infarction Surgical procedure easier than in rodents and more volume of samples Lower cost than large animals. Thoracotomy surgery required
Dog Left coronary ligation (total occlusion or ischemia/reperfusion) Myocardial infarction Surgical procedure easier than in rodents and more volume of samples Lower cost than large animals. High death incidence by arrhythmias
Pig Angioplasty balloon occlusion of the left anterior descending coronary Myocardial infarction Anatomy and pathology closed to human. Good suitability to undergo imaging techniques. No surgery requirements. Require skills for coronary catheterization and surgical specific material
Zebrafish Myocardial criolesion Myocardial infarction Heart remodeling and regenerative model Far of mammals biology
VASCULAR DISEASE
Mouse APOE-deficiency and LDL Receptor deficiency Atherosclerosis, Aortic root atherogenic lesions Easy use of GEM animals, low cost of husbandry and feasible cardiovascular assessment. Great valuable data of molecular and cellular events. Not mimic exactly the human chronic disease. The artery low size complicates the in vivo imaging acquisition
Rabbit High-fat diet with/without balloon aortic injury Atherosclerosis, Aortic arch and thoracic aorta lesions Easy husbandry and feasible artery imaging acquisition. Great skill for vessel damage, long term experimental induction of atherogenic lesions and no coronary affection
Rabbit Watanabe WHHL (LDL Receptor deficiency) Atherosclerosis, Aortic arch and thoracic aorta lesions Easy husbandry and feasible artery imaging acquisition. Possible finding of coronary artery lesions. Not necessary high fat diet. Unstable atherogenic plaque which could develop coronary occlusion and death
Pig High-fat diet with/without angioplasty Atherosclerosis, Aortic and coronary atherogenic lesions Model closed to human disease Long term experimental induction of atherogenic lesions. Skills for catheterism
PULMONARY HYPERTENSION
Rat Chronic Hypoxia Increase in vascular tone Repeatable maintained increase in pulmonary artery and RV pressure accompanied by RV remodeling Minimal vascular remodeling. Suitable just for small animals
Rat Chronic Hypoxia plus SU5416 Increase in vascular tone plus VEGFR-R blockade Equal than chronic hypoxia more angiobliterative changes. More increase in RV pressure and more RV hypertrophy Suitable just for small animals
Rat, dog, pig, sheep Monocrotaline Endothelial damage Produces RV failure and vascular remodeling No plexogenic arteriopathy
Dogs pig, sheep Beads or clots injection Decrease in total vessel area Acute increase in pulmonary pressure RV remodeling Decrease of the severity of vascular and RV changes with time. Hard to titrate the dose. High mortality in some reports
Pig, Rat Aortocaval shunt Increase in pulmonary artery flow Resembles major features of human disease Requires surgical skills. Complications related with surgery
Rodents, pig, sheep, dog Vascular banding Decrease in vascular compliance Controllable and maintained increase in pulmonary artery pressure. RV remodeling Requires surgical skills. Complications related with surgery