Table 1.

Cancer-associated biomarkers in the plasma, serum and urine from ccRCC patients.

Biomarker	Source	Detection method	Deregulation	Function	Utility	Source	Ref
cfDNA	serum	PCR reaction	upregulated	Unknown	ccRCC diagnosis	Coon JJ et al.	36
cfDNA	plasma	real-time PCR	upregulated	Unknown	identification of metastatic ccRCC patients during the course of sorafenib therapy	Lee et al.	37
cfDNA	plasma	real-time PCR	upregulated	Unknown	diagnosis and detection of recurrence after nephrectomy	Gang et al.	38
miRNA-187	serum	qPCR	downregulated	Unknown	ccRCC diagnosis	Zhao et al.	44
miRNA 210	serum	qPCR	upregulated	role in tumorigenesis	ccRCC detection	Camps et al.	43
miR‑141 ,	serum	qPCR	downregulated	Unknown	ccRCC diagnosis	Cheng et al.	45
miR‑34a and miR‑21 miR‑224	serum	qPCR	upregulated	Unknown	ccRCC diagnosis	Cheng et al.	45
sIL-2R	serum	ELISA immunoassay	upregulated	activation of T cells and regulation immune response	ccRCC diagnosis and detection	Masuda et al.	46
sB7-H3	serum	ELISA immunoassay	downregulated	inhibition of T cell activity	ccRCC diagnosis and detection	Masuda et al.	46
proteasome 20S	serum	sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay	downregulated	protein degradation	ccRCC diagnosis and prognosis	De Martino et al.	54
zinc finger proteins	serum	matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) TOF) mass spectrometry (MS)	upregulated	includes a motif which mediates biding to molecules such as protein, DNA and RNA.	ccRCC detection	Yang et al.	55
RNA-binding proteins (RBPs)	serum	MALDI TOF MS	upregulated	binds to RNA molecules and plays significant role in forming ribonucleoproteins splicing of mRNA, polyadenylation, stabilization, localization and translation	ccRCC detection	Yang et al.	55
protein TUBB	serum	MALDI TOF MS	upregulated	consisting of microtubules	ccRCC detection	Yang et al.	55
B7x	serum	ELISA immunoassay	upregulated	downregulation of peripheral immune responses via negative T-cell costimulation	ccRCC diagnosis and detection	Krambeck et al.	49
collagen fragments below 1.4 kDa	urine	capillary electrophoresis coupled to mass spectrometry (CE-MS)	downregulated	activation of platelet response, involvement in thrombosis and hemostasis engagement in replacement and restoration of dead skin cells	ccRCC diagnosis and prognosis	Chinello et al.	57
peptides from inflammatory and immune proteins	urine	CE-MS	downregulated	Unknown	ccRCC diagnosis and prognosis	Frantzi et al.	51
peptides involved in coagulation and platelet aggregation	urine	CE-MS	upregulated	Unknown	ccRCC diagnosis and prognosis	Frantzi et al.	51
fragments of the human glycoprotein uromodulin (UMOD/THP)	urine	MALDI TOF MS	upregulated	regulatory protein, prevention of urinary tract from infections and injuries caused by products from tubular fluids. Protection against calcium oxalate crystal formation	ccRCC diagnosis and prognosis	Chinello et al.	57
fragment of fibrinogen alpha chain (FIBA)	urine	MALDI TOF MS	upregulated	involvement in hemostasis, platelet aggregation and wound repair	ccRCC diagnosis and prognosis	Frantzi et al.	51