Table 5.

TBI models using craniotomy.

Study	Sex/species/age	Model	Injuries	Interval	Anesthesia	Outcome measures
Olsson et al. (68)	Rabbits Unknown	Fluid percussion	Single Repeat (10)	Single (5 min)	Pentobarbital	Righting reflex; cardiovascular; vascular damage
Smith et al. (40)	Male C57BL6 mice 2–3 months	Metal CCI Open head	Single	Single	Pentobarbital	Cognition; structural integrity; cell death; gliosis and degeneration; vascular damage
Kanayama et al. (31)	Male Wister rats 2–3 months	Fluid percussion	Single Repeat (7)	Single (24 h)	Pentobarbital	Motor; social recognition; cytoskeletal damage; tauopathy
Allen et al. (158)	Male S. Dawley rats 2–3 months	Weight-drop Plexiglas piston	Single severe Repeat mild (3)	Three mild over 14 days ± severe 3 days	Pentobarbital or ketamine/rhompamine	Motor; gliosis and degeneration; structural integrity
DeRoss et al. (70)	Male Long–Evans rats 2–3 months	Fluid percussion	Single Repeat (2,3)	Single (N/A)	Isoflurane	Cognition; motor
Manley et al. (73)	Male Yorkshire pigs Adult	Metal CCI Open head	Single	Single	Pancuronium Isoflurane	Cardiovascular; structural integrity; edema; vascular damage; cell death; gliosis and degeneration
Donovan et al. (61)	Male S. Dawley rats 2–3 months	Metal CCI Open head	Single Repeat (2)	Single 7 days each side	Isoflurane	Advanced imaging; structural integrity; axonal damage
Hawkins et al. (61)	Male S. Dawley Rats 6–8 months	Fluid percussion	Single	Single	Isoflurane	Extensive tauopathy assessment
Rubenstein et al. (38)	Male S. Dawley rats and C57BL6 mice 2–3 months	Metal CCI Open head	Single	Single	Isoflurane	Extensive tauopathy assessment; human studies
Begum et al. (37)	Male S. Dawley rats 2–3 months	Metal CCI Open head	Single	Single	Isoflurane	Motor; endoplasmic reticulum stress; tauopathy; axonal damage
Aungst et al. (67)	Male S. Dawley rats 2–3 months	Fluid percussion	Single Repeat (3)	Single (48 h)	Isoflurane	Electrophysiology; neuroscore; cognition; social recognition; gliosis and degeneration; cell death