Table 2.
The associations between cognitive impairment and dementia, area deprivation, built and social environmental features
| Cognitive impairment (MMSE ≤ 25) |
Dementia |
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model 1 OR (95% CI) | Model 2 OR (95% CI) | Model 3 OR (95% CI) | Model 1 OR (95% CI) | Model 2 OR (95% CI) | Model 3 OR (95% CI) | ||
| Area deprivation | |||||||
| (Least deprived) | Q1 (ref.) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
| Q2 | 1.38 (1.02, 1.86) | 1.21 (0.87, 1.68) | 1.19 (0.65, 2.17) | 1.05 (0.55, 2.00) | |||
| Q3 | 1.27 (0.94, 1.72) | 1.03 (0.74, 1.42) | 1.42 (0.79, 2.54) | 1.19 (0.64, 2.22) | |||
| (Most deprived) | Q4 | 1.50 (1.12, 2.00) | 1.16 (0.84, 1.61) | 1.58 (0.91, 2.74) | 1.39 (0.76, 2.56) | ||
| P = 0.63 | P = 0.23 | ||||||
| Built environment | |||||||
| Land use mix | |||||||
| (Lowest) | Q1 (ref.) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| Q2 | 0.81 (0.60, 1.09) | 0.76 (0.55, 1.04) | 0.75 (0.55, 1.03) | 0.63 (0.35, 1.12) | 0.60 (0.33, 1.09) | 0.54 (0.29, 0.98) | |
| Q3 | 0.72 (0.53, 0.98) | 0.69 (0.51, 0.95) | 0.66 (0.48, 0.92) | 0.65 (0.36, 1.15) | 0.68 (0.37, 1.23) | 0.57 (0.31, 1.04) | |
| (Highest) | Q4 | 0.92 (0.69, 1.22) | 0.86 (0.63, 1.16) | 0.81 (0.59, 1.12) | 0.59 (0.34, 1.04) | 0.58 (0.32, 1.03) | 0.44 (0.23, 0.82) |
| P = 0.39 | P = 0.24 | P = 0.11 | P = 0.02 | ||||
| Natural environment | |||||||
| (Lowest) | Q1 (ref.) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
| Q2 | 0.76 (0.57, 1.02) | 0.78 (0.57, 1.04) | 0.80 (0.59, 1.08) | 0.80 (0.47, 1.37) | 0.96 (0.54, 1.71) | 1.05 (0.60, 1.86) | |
| Q3 | 0.86 (0.65, 1.14) | 0.99 (0.73, 1.33) | 1.04 (0.77, 1.42) | 0.76 (0.44, 1.31) | 0.95 (0.53, 1.70) | 1.16 (0.64, 2.10) | |
| (Highest) | Q4 | 1.12 (0.83, 1.51) | 1.28 (0.93, 1.75) | 1.41 (1.00, 1.98) | 1.38 (0.78, 2.42) | 1.64 (0.91, 2.97) | 2.23 (1.17, 4.24) |
| P = 0.08 | P = 0.03a | P = 0.15 | P = 0.02 | ||||
| Social environment | |||||||
| Crime (Least) | Q1 (ref.) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||
| Q2 | 1.06 (0.78, 1.45) | 0.94 (0.68, 1.30) | 1.65 (0.90, 3.02) | 1.34 (0.71, 2.54) | |||
| Q3 | 1.20 (0.89, 1.63) | 0.97 (0.71, 1.34) | 1.91 (1.05, 3.48) | 1.55 (0.83, 2.89) | |||
| (Most) | Q4 | 1.23 (0.91, 1.64) | 0.96 (0.70, 1.31) | 1.52 (0.85, 2.73) | 1.15 (0.62, 2.12) | ||
| P = 0.88 | P = 0.70 | ||||||
Model 1: Unadjusted estimates of odds ratio (OR) of individual and community level factors.
Model 2: The estimates of OR were adjusted for individual level factors (age, gender, education, social class and number of chronic illnesses).
Model 3: The estimates of OR were further adjusted for individual level factors and area deprivation.
P: P-value of test for trend.
aAlthough both test for trend (P = 0.03) and heterogeneity (P = 0.01) were significant, the P-value of likelihood ratio test for linearity was 0.04, which indicated that the relationship was more likely to be non-linear. The trend might be driven by the higher odds in the fourth quartile.