Table 3.

Adjusted regression model of logged household expenditures for food, education and healthcare

	Food			Education			Healthcare
Variables	Random-slope	Random-intercept	Fixed-effects	Random-slope	Random-intercept	Fixed-effects	Random-slope	Random-intercept	Fixed-effects
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)	(9)
Current tobacco use (ref. No use)
Daily	0.024*	0.028**	0.028**	−0.080**	−0.068**	−0.067**	−0.055*	−0.045*	−0.045*
Occasional	−0.020	−0.011	−0.011	−0.014	0.006	0.006	−0.028	−0.002	−0.002
Age (in years)	0.029**	0.029**	0.029**	0.164**	0.164**	0.164**	0.001	0.001	0.001
Agec/100	−0.032**	−0.032**	−0.031**	−0.184**	−0.184**	−0.184**	0.003	0.003	0.003
Level of education (ref. At least high school)
Secondary completed	−0.076**	−0.076**	−0.076**	−0.100**	−0.100**	−0.098**	−0.067**	−0.067**	−0.066**
Primary completed	−0.110**	−0.111**	−0.111**	−0.258**	−0.258**	−0.257**	−0.154**	−0.156**	−0.155**
No formal education/lower than primary	−0.158**	−0.158**	−0.158**	−0.449**	−0.450**	−0.448**	−0.283**	−0.284**	−0.284**
Household wealth quintile (ref. 5 th , highest)
4th	−0.269**	−0.269**	−0.269**	−0.542**	−0.542**	−0.542**	−0.250**	−0.250**	−0.250**
3rd	−0.384**	−0.385**	−0.385**	−0.762**	−0.762**	−0.763**	−0.352**	−0.352**	−0.353**
2nd	−0.506**	−0.506**	−0.507**	−0.943**	−0.944**	−0.945**	−0.448**	−0.449**	−0.450**
1st (lowest)	−0.710**	−0.711**	−0.712**	−1.150**	−1.152**	−1.154**	−0.621**	−0.626**	−0.627**
Marital status (ref. Currently married)
Never married	−0.279**	−0.278**	−0.279**	−0.451**	−0.451**	−0.451**	−0.360**	−0.361**	−0.361**
Separated/Divorced/Widowed	−0.347**	−0.347**	−0.347**	−0.554**	−0.555**	−0.554**	−0.324**	−0.327**	−0.326**
Co-habiting	−0.058**	−0.058**	−0.058**	−0.169**	−0.170**	−0.170**	−0.059	−0.060*	−0.061*
Rural (vs Urban/Semi-urban)	−0.206**	−0.207**	−0.207**	−0.107**	−0.108**	−0.109**	0.002	0.002	0.002
Poorer LMICs (vs Less poor LMICs)	−0.085	−0.084	—	−0.676**	−0.678**	—	0.057	0.082	—
Constant	4.472**	4.470**	4.631**	−0.542**	−0.534**	−0.858**	1.685**	1.677**	1.880**
SD (Daily)	.035 (.016)a	—	—	.095 (.025)a	—	—	.113 (.026)a	—	—
SD (Occasional)	.049 (.036)a	—	—	.056 (.041)a	—	—	.101 (.049) a	—	—
SD (Constant)	.416 (.047)a	.416 (.047)a	—	.426 (.049)a	.431 (.049)a	—	.534 (.061) a	.531 (.060)	—
Hausman testb	—	[χ c(15) = 24.11 (p = 0.063)]		—	[χ c(15) = 16.22 (p = 0.368)]		—	[χ c(15) = 19.94 (p = 0.174)]
Likelihood ratio testc	[χ c(2) = 3.46 (p = 0.177)]		—	[χ c(2) = 9.01 (p = 0.011)]		—	[χ c(2) = 17.71 (p < 0.001)]		—
Observations (countries)	53,185 (40)			50,732 (40)			50,602 (40)

Notes: **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05; SD, standard deviation of estimated coefficient; ^astandard error in parentheses; ^bRejecting the null hypothesis would favor fixed-effects to random-intercept; ^cRejecting the null hypothesis would favor random-slope over random-intercept. Country-level income group classification was modified based on data from The World Bank (Fiscal Year 2004) which corresponds to WHS data for calendar year 2002. Region dummies were included but are not presented here