Table 1.

Photosensitizers used in antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) for periodontal microbes.

Author and Year (Ref.)	Photosensitizer	Samples/Bacterial Strain	Conclusion
Bhatti et al., 2002 [15]	Toluidine blue O	Planktonic culture/Porphyromonas gingivalis	Disruption of membrane functions associated with a decrease in membrane fluidity may contribute to the bactericidal effect of light-activated toluidine blue
Bhatti et al., 1997 [16]	Toluidine blue O	Planktonic culture/Porphyromonas gingivalis	In the presence of toluidine blue O, a light dose-dependent increase in bacterial killing was attained (100% killing at 4.4 J)
Chan et al., 2003 [17]	Methylene blue	Planktonic culture/Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Prevotella intermedia, and Streptococcus sanguinis	Using a diode laser of appropriate power and wavelength to deliver 60 s of irradiation could be a useful adjunct therapy with mechanical debridement for the prevention of re-colonization of subgingival lesions by pathogenic microorganisms
Matevski et al., 2003 [18]	Toluidine blue O	Planktonic culture/Porphyromonas gingivalis	The data indicated that aPDT using a conventional light source was at least as effective as laser-mediated treatment in vitro
Souko et al., 1998 [19]	A conjugate between poly-l-lysine and the photosensitizer chlorin e6	Planktonic culture/Porphyromonas gingivalis and Actinomyces viscosus	The cationic pL-ce6 conjugate may have applications in PDT of periodontal disease
Wilson et al., 1993 [20]	Toluidine blue O; Methylene blue	Planktonic culture/Porphyromonas gingivalis, Fusobacterium nucleatum, and Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans	Low doses of light (22 J/cm2) were effective to kill bacteria in vivo, and the technique may be useful to eliminate periodontopathogenic bacteria from diseased sites
Nagahara et al., 2013 [21]	Indocyanine green-loaded nanospheres	Planktonic culture/Porphyromonas gingivalis	ICG-Nano/c with low-level diode laser (0.5 W; 805 nm) irradiation might be useful as a potential photodynamic periodontal therapy
Topaloglu et al., 2013 [22]	Indocyanine green	Planktonic culture/Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa	The combination of ICG and 809-nm laser light was an effective antibacterial method to destroy antibiotic-resistant strains of Gram-positive and -negative bacteria
Klepac-Ceraj et al., 2011 [23]	Methylene blue-loaded polymeric nanoparticles	Planktonic culture, plaque scraping, and biofilm/human dental plaque bacteria	Cationic methylene blue-loaded poly lactic-co-glycolic acid nanoparticles showed the potential to be used as carriers of methylene blue for photodynamic periodontal therapy Systems
Voos et al., 2014 [24]	Safranine O	Planktonic culture and biofilms/Streptococcus gordonii, Streptococcus mutans, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, and Porphyromonas gingivalis	Oral pathogenic species in planktonic solution were suppressed significantly by antimicrobial photodynamic periodontal therapy with safranin O. Particularly for bacteria in a 24-h ex vivo biofilm, this method was more effective than treatment with 0.2% CHX. Both antibacterial treatments did not show any significant effect on the biofilm cultured for 72 h
Sarkar et al., 1993 [25]	Toluidine blue O	Plaque scraping/human dental plaque bacteria	The use of low-power lasers, in conjunction with appropriate photosensitizers, may be a useful adjunct therapy to mechanical debridement for treating inflammatory periodontal diseases if similar effectiveness against subgingival plaque bacteria can be achieved in vivo
Dobson et al., 1992 [26]	Methylene blue; Toluidine blue O; Phthalocyanine; Hematoporphyrin HCl; Hematoporphyrin ester	Biofilms/Streptococcus sanguinis, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Fusobacterium nucleatum, and Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans	Lethal photosensitization may be effective in eliminating periodontopathogenic bacteria from dental plaque
Wood et al., 1999 [27]	Phthalocyanine	Biofilms/Human dental plaque bacteria	Confocal scanning laser microscopy of the biofilms showed that the photosensitizer was taken up into the biomass of the biofilm, and that significant cell death was caused by PDT