Table 1. Results of permutation tests for effects of urbanization and management on the intensity of nine pathogens.

Disease	Whole model	Management		Urbanization
	p	Direction*	p	Direction*	p
Nosema apis	0.072	+	0.040	+	0.311
Nosema ceranae	0.025	+	0.039	+	0.037
ABPV	0.430	+	0.733	–	0.209
BQCV	0.031	+	0.187	+	0.027
CBPV	0.218	+	0.218	–	0.199
DWV	0.789	–	0.546	–	0.829
IAPV	0.174	+	0.605	–	0.068
KBV	0.167	–	0.284	–	0.140
SBV	0.149	+	0.197	+	0.153

*A positive (+) effect indicates that a disease transcript is more abundant in colonies subject to management or to increasing urbanization.