Table 1.
Overview of included cG × E studies
| Authors | G | E | Outcome | G × E (+/−) | N | Age | Sex | Risk allele |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fergusson et al. (2012) | MAOA | Adverse childhood circumstances (e.g., childhood maltreatment, family material deprivation; child-report) | Antisocial behavior (self-report) and criminal offending (official records) | + | 399 | Followed from 15 to 30 | M | Low-activity (2.5 and 3 repeats) |
| Fergusson et al. (2011) | MAOA | Childhood abuse or either regular or harsh/severe levels of physical punishment (child-report); interparental violence (Conflict Tactics Scale; child-report) | Property offending (self-report); violent offending (self-report); convictions for property/violent offending (official records); conduct problems (self-report); hostility (SCL-90; self-report) | + | 398 | Followed from 15 to 30 | M | Low-activity (2.5 and 3 repeats) |
| Weder et al. (2009) | MAOA | Trauma (multi-informant Total Trauma Exposure Score) | Aggressive behavior (TRF) | + | 114 | 5–15; M = 9.7 | M/F | Low-activity (2, 3, and 5 repeats) |
| Foley et al. (2004) | MAOA | Adverse childhood environment (parental neglect; parent-report and exposure to interparental violence and inconsistent parental discipline; child-report) | Conduct disorder (multi-informant child and adolescent psychiatric assessment) | + | 514 | 8–17; M = 12.23 | M | Low-activity (2, 3, and 5 repeats) |
| Prom-Wormley et al. (2009) | MAOA | Childhood adversity (parental neglect; parent-report and exposure to interparental violence or inconsistent parental discipline; child-report) | Conduct disorder (multi-informant Child and adolescent psychiatric assessment) | −a | 721 | 8–17; M = 11.24 | F | N.A. |
| Widom and Brzustowicz (2006) | MAOA | Neglect and abuse (official records) | Violent and antisocial behavior (number of arrests, self-reports, and psychiatric interview) | + (White subsample)/−(other subsamples) | 631 | Adults | M/F | Low-activity (males with one or females with two 3-repeat) |
| Haberstick et al. (2005) | MAOA | Maltreatment (child-report) | Conduct problems (measure of DSM-IV criteria, self-report, and violent convictions) | − | 774 | Followed from 16 to 22 | M | N.A. |
| Caspi et al. (2002) | MAOA | Maltreatment (behavioral observations of e.g., harshness, parental reports, and retrospective reports) | Composite index of antisocial behavior: (1) conduct disorder; DSM-IV, (2) convictions for violent crimes; official records, (3) disposition toward violence; self-report; (4) sAntisocial personality disorder; friend/family report | + | 442 | Followed from 3 to 26 | M | Low-activity (2 or 3 repeats) |
| Huizinga et al. (2006) | MAOA | Maltreatment (child-report) | Life course problem behavior and violence and composite index of antisocial and violent behavior: (1) conduct disorder; DSM-IV, (2) arrests; official records and self-report, (3) disposition to violence; self-report (4) sAntisocial personality disorder; self-report and parent/spouse report | − | 277 | Followed from 11 to 28b | M | N.A. |
| Prichard et al. (2008) | MAOA | Childhood adversity (child-report) | Antisocial behavior (using indicator variables; self-report) | − | 1002 | Adults | M | N.A. |
| Derringer et al. (2010) | MAOA | Harsh discipline and sexual abuse (child-report) | Antisocial behavior and conduct disorder (lifetime prevalence and symptom count; DSM-IV) | +c | 841 | Followed from 11 (cohort 1) or 17 (cohort 2) | M/F | Low-activity (2, 3 or 5 repeats) |
| Åslund et al. (2011) | MAOA | Maltreatment (summation index; child-report) | Delinquency (self-report) | + | 1825 | 17 or 18 | M/F | Low-activity (boys: 2 or 3 repeats)/high-activity (girls: 3.5, 4, or 5 repeats and heterozygous: low/high) |
| Van der Vegt et al. (2009) | MAOA | Early maltreatment (before adoption reported by adoptive parents) | Externalizing behavior (CBCL) | − | 239 | 10–15 | M | N.A. |
| Ducci et al. (2007) | MAOA | Childhood sexual abuse (psychiatric interview and medical records child) | Antisocial personality disorder (DSM-IV) or sAntisocial personality disorder (schedule for affective disorders and Schizophrenia-lifetime version) | + | 291 | Adults | F | Low-activity (homozygous) |
| Young et al. (2006) | MAOA | Maltreatment (Colorado Adolescent Rearing Inventory; child-report) | Conduct disorder (DISC; self-report) | − | 247 | 12–18 | M | N.A. |
| Kim-Cohen et al. (2006) | MAOA | Maltreatment (child-report) | Behavior problems (CBCL, TRF, and child-report) | +d | 975 | 7 | M | Low-activity (2, 3, and 5 repeats) |
| Frazzetto et al. (2007) | MAOA | Early traumatic life events (related to family environment; child-report) | Physical aggression (self-report) | +(Males)/−(females) | 90 | Adults | M/F | Low-activity (2, 3 and 5 repeat) |
| Sjöberg et al. (2007) | MAOA | Psychosocial factors: type of housing and experiences of childhood sexual abuse (child-report) | Criminal activity (self-report) | + | 119 | 16 or 19 | F | High-activity (4 repeat) |
| Beach et al. (2010) | MAOA | Maltreatment (child-report) | Antisocial personality disorder (maximum lifetime symptom levels of antisocial personality disorder: DSM–III–R; using SSAGA–II) | + | 538 | Adults | M/F | Low-activity (3 repeat) |
| Nilsson et al. (2006) | MAOA | Psychosocial factors: type of housing and experiences of childhood sexual abuse (child-report) | Criminal activity (self-report) | + | 81 | 16 or 19 | M | Low-activity (3 repeat) |
| Vanyukov et al. (2007) | MAOA | Parenting (child assessment of parental involvement and behavior) | Psychiatric diagnosis: kiddie-schedule for affective disorders and Schizophrenia (mother and child-report) | +e | 144 | Followed from 10 to 19 | M | High-activity (3.5 and 4 repeats) |
| Edwards et al. (2010) | MAOA | Physical discipline (Conflict Tactics Scale; mother-report) | Externalizing behavior (CBCL, YSR/YASR, and TRF) | +f | 186 | Followed from 6 to 22 | M | Low-activity (2, 3, or 5 repeats) |
| Hart and Marmorstein (2009) | MAOA | Neighborhood poverty (i.e., the percentage of individuals in the census tract living in households with incomes below the federal poverty level) | Aggression (self-report) | − | 579 | 11–21 | M | N.A. |
| McGrath et al. (2012) | MAOA | Childhood physical maltreatment (Childhood Trauma Questionnaire; child-report) | Problem behavior factors: (1) conduct problems (self-report); (2) impulsive sensation seeking (self-report); (3) interpersonal aggression (self-report) | +g | 192 | Adults | F | High-activity (3.5 and 4 repeats) |
| Reti et al. (2011) | MAOA | Childhood physical abuse (child-report) | Antisocial personality (international personality disorder examination) | + | 742 | Adults | M/F | Low-activity (2, 5, or 3 repeat) |
| Kinnally et al. (2009) | MAOA | Parental care (parental bonding instrument) and early life stressors (clinical assessment Interview, child-report) | Impulsivity and aggression (Brown-Goodwin Aggression Inventory; self-report, Barratt Impulsivity Scale; self-report, and BDHI; self-report) | +h | 159 | Adults | F | High-activity (3.5 or 4 repeat) |
| Choe et al. (2014) | MAOA | Maternal punitiveness (early parenting coding system; observation). Parental punitive discipline (Child Misbehavior Questionnaire; parent-report). | Violent attitudes (Attitudes Towards Violence Scale; self-report), antisocial behavior (Self-Report of Delinquency Questionnaire; peer- and self-reports) | + | 189 | Followed from 1.5 to 20 | M | Low-activity (3 repeat) |
| Bakermans-Kranenburg and Van IJzendoorn (2006) | DRD4 | Maternal insensitivity (Ainsworth’s rating scale) | Externalizing behavior (CBCL) | +i | 47 | 10 months (maternal sensitivity); 29 months (CBCL) | M/F | 7-repeat |
| Propper et al. (2007) | DRD4 | Parenting quality (observation of sensitivity/responsiveness, detachment/disengagement) | Externalizing problems (CBCL) | +(African American subsample/−(other subsamples) | 169 | Followed from 3 to 30 months | M/F | Short (2–6 repeats) |
| Windhorst et al. (2015) | DRD4 | Maternal sensitivity (Ainsworth’s rating scales at 14 months/Erickson scales at 36 and 48 months; observation) | Externalizing behavior (CBCL) | +j | 548 | Followed 14 months to 5 years | M/F | 7-repeat |
| Marsman et al. (2013) | DRD4 | Parental rearing practices (EMBU-C; parent-report) | Externalizing problems (CBCL and YSR) | + | 2230 | Followed from 10 to 16 (T1 10–12; M = 11.09) | M/F | 4-repeat |
| Martel et al. (2011) | DRD4 | Parenting (APQ; parent-report) and child perception of interparental conflict (child-report) | ADHD or ODD; sADHD (parent and teacher report on the ADHD Rating Scale); ODD symptoms (teacher-report) | +k | 548 | 6–18; M = 11.67 | M/F | Long (homozygous) |
| Nikitopoulos et al. (2014) | DRD4 | Early maternal care (observed and coded using category system for microanalysis of early mother–child interaction) | Externalizing symptoms (K-SADS, parent and adolescent interview); Psychopathic behaviors (the psychopathy screening device, parent report) | + | 296 | Followed to 15 | M/F | 7-repeat |
| Schlomer et al. (2015) | DRD4 | Maternal hostility (child-report) | Aggressive behavior problems (CBCL) | + | 580 | Followed from 11 to 16 | M/F | 7-repeat |
| DeLisi et al. (2009) | DRD2 | Criminal father (respondent’s biological father had ever been incarcerated yes/no) | Delinquency: police contacts and self-report on serious and violent delinquency | +l | 232 | 12–17 (T1); 13.5–18.5 (T2) | F | A1 |
| Thompson et al. (2012) | COMT | Maternal stress (The Perceived Stress Scale; mother-report) | Externalizing behavior (SDQ; parent-report) | + | 546 | Followed from 1–11 | M/F | Met (homozygous) |
| Nobile et al. (2010) | COMT | SES (i.e., parental employment according to the Hollingshead scale for parental occupation) | ADHD, ODD and CD problems (CBCL) | +m | 172 | 11–14 | M/F | Val (homozygous) |
| Wagner et al. (2010) | COMT | Physical maltreatment, rape and childhood sexual abuse (self-report) | Aggression (BDHI; self-report) | + | 112 | Adults | F | Val (homozygous) |
| Li and Lee (2010) | 5-HTTLPR | Maltreatment (child-report) | Antisocial behavior (self-report) | + | 2488 | Followed from 12 to 27 (T1 12–20; M = 15.6) | M/F | S |
| Sadeh et al. (2010) | 5-HTTLPR | Study 1: disadvantaged environments (composite SES index: annual family income and parental occupation scores) | Psychopathic tendencies (APSD; self-report) | +n | 118 | 9–17; M = 14.3 | M/F | L (homozygous) |
| Study 2: composite SES index: annual family income (continuous), mother’s educational attainment, and father’s educational attainment. | Callous unemotional traits (inventory of callous- unemotional traits; self-report) | + | 178 | 8–15; M = 10.8 | M/F | L (homozygous) | ||
| Davies and Cicchetti (2013) | 5-HTTLPR | Maternal unresponsiveness (adult–adolescent parenting inventory; maternal report and observational ratings of mother–child interactions: Iowa Family Interaction Rating Scales) | Externalizing behavior (California Child Q-Set and Caregiver–Teacher Report Form; experimenter-report) | +(African American subsample)/−(other subsamples) | 201 | 2 | M/F | L (homozygous) |
| Agnafors et al. (2013) | 5-HTTLPR | Maternal stress and depression (The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS); Life Stress Score (LSS)) | Externalizing behavior (CBCL) | − | 889 | Followed to 12 | M/F | N.A. |
| Reif et al. (2007) | MAOA, DAT1, 5-HTTLPR | Adverse childhood environment: social status, family structure, emotional family climate, social integration, and school education (rated by independent investigator) | Habitual aggressive and violent behavior (expert consensus) | +(5-HTTLPR)/−(MAOA, DAT1) | 184 | Adults | M | S |
| Cicchetti et al. (2012) | MAOA (boys only), 5-HTTLPR | Maltreatment (MCS; all available information coded by research assistants) | Antisocial behavior (TRF, peer rating, and The Pittsburg Youth Survey; self-report) | +o | 627 | 10–12; M = 11.27 | M/F | Low-activity (MAOA; 2, 3 and 5 repeats)/S homozygotes (5-HTTLPR) |
| Simons et al. (2011) | DRD4, 5-HTTLPR | Social environment (Harsh parenting; self-report) | Aggression (DISC; self-report at wave 1 and Elliott’s Instrument self-report at wave 5). | −p | 505 | Followed from 12 to 21 | M/F | N.A. |
| Sonuga-Barke et al. (2009) | DAT1, DRD4, 5-HTTLPR | Parental expressed criticism (coded by researchers using codings derived from the Camberwell Family Interview) | Conduct problems (SDQ; parent and teacher-report) | +(DAT1, 5-HTTLPR)/−(DRD4) | 673 | 5–17 | M | 9-repeat (DAT1)/S (5-HTTLPR) |
| Nederhof et al. (2012) | COMT, DRD4, DRD2 | Parental separation/divorce before the age of 16 | Externalizing behavior (YSR) | +(COMT, DRD4)/−(DRD2) | 1134 | 16 | M/F | Met (COMT)/7-repeat (DRD4)q |
| Nobile et al. (2007) | DRD4, 5-HTTLPR | Social economic status (Hollingshead scale for parental occupation) | Rule-breaking and aggressive Behavior (CBCL) | + | 589 | 10–14; M = 12.0 (boys)/M = 12.13 (girls) | M/F | L (homozygous) (5-HTTLPR)/L (DRD4; 6-8 repeats) |
| Beaver et al. (2012) | DRD4, DRD2 | Neighborhood disadvantager ((a) the proportion of households that were single-parent headed (b) the proportion of households with an income <US$15,000 (c) the proportion of households receiving public assistance (d) the proportion Black and (e) the unemployment rate) | Violent delinquency (self-report) | + | 1026 | 12–21; M = 16.1 | M/F | 7-repeat (DRD4)/A1 (DRD2) |
| Sadeh et al. (2013) | MAOA, 5-HTTLPR | Childhood abuse (The Childhood Trauma Questionnaire) | Psychopathic traits (The Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version; self-report) | − | 237 | Adults | M | N.A. |
| Lavigne et al. (2013) | 5-HTTLPR, DRD4, MAOA | Risk factors: Social economic status (Hollingshead Four-Factor Index of social status), parental stress (Perceived Stress Scale; Parenting Stress Index Short Form, parent report), family conflict, caretaker depression, Parental support and hostility, Support/scaffolding (observed) | Childhood externalizing psychopathology (Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children–Parent Scale—Young Child (DISC-YC); child symptom inventory (CSI); Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory (ECBI); parent report) | +(5-HTTLPR)s/−(DRD4, MAOA) | 175 | 4–5; M = 4.40 | M/F | L (homozygous) |
| Richards et al. (2015) | 5-HTTLPR, DRD4, DAT1 | Maternal expressed criticism (rated by interviewer) | Antisocial behavior (SDQ, parent- and self-report) | − | 366 | 8–28; M = 17.11 | M/F | N.A. |
| Boardman et al. (2014) | DAT1, DRD2 | Family closeness (reversed coded, self-report) | Serious and violent delinquency (self-report) | + | 724 | 12–17 at timepoint 1 (followed 27 years) | M/F | 10R (DAT1)/A1 (DRD2) |
Note Some studies included multiple environmental and/or outcome measures. Only details and findings on postnatal family adversity and externalizing behavior were shown in this table
aInitial interaction-effect with the high-activity allele (3.5 and 4 repeat) was no longer significant after adjusting for sample sizes at each level of childhood adversity
bMultiple birth cohort
cSignificant G × E only with sexual abuse and MAOA in predicting antisocial behavior and conduct disorder symptoms
dSignificant G × E only with physical abuse
eThe strength and direction of relationships depended on the parental sex. The G × E was not detected using stratified analyses, conducted in the genotypic classes separately
fSignificant G × E only on delinquency scale
gSignificant G × E only with MAOA and physical maltreatment on conduct problems
hE × E × G: better perceived parental care offset the effects of life stressors in carriers of the low-activity allele, but not in carriers of the high-activity allele
iReplicated in twin siblings
jSignificant interaction with sensitivity at age 14 months only: differential susceptibility for externalizing behavior at 18 months, but contrastive effects for 7-repeat carriers and non-carriers at 36 months
kSignificant G × E only on ADHD diagnosis
lNull findings (not shown in paper) were found for African American males, Caucasian males and females
mSignificant G × E only on ADHD problems
nSignificant G × E only on Callous Unemotional and Narcissistic scales
o 5-HTTLPR × maltreatment on all outcomes; MAOA × maltreatment on self-report conduct symptoms in boys only
pOnly cumulative genetic effects were found
qOpposite effects for boys and girls (protective model boys, dual risk model girls)
rSocial and economic adversity
s 5-HTTLPR × family stress only