Table 2.
Outcome measures
| Outcome | Outcome measure | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Primary | Insulin sensitivity | 72 hours and 96 hours post exercise |
| • HOMA2 computer model for insulin sensitivity (IR, %S) [53] | ||
| • HOMA2 computer model for beta cell function (%Beta) | ||
| Glucose homeostasis | Fasting glucose | |
| Glycated hemoglobin [53] | ||
| Insulin | ||
| C-peptide levels | ||
| Diabetic medication inventory and dosages | ||
| Meal tolerance test | ||
| Secondary | Cardiovascular health | Resting heart rate variability and pulse wave velocity (arterial stiffness) |
| 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure | ||
| Postural blood pressure | ||
| Ankle brachial blood pressure index | ||
| Lipid metabolism | Total cholesterol | |
| Low/High-density cholesterol | ||
| Triglycerides | ||
| Basal fat oxidation via indirect calorimetry | ||
| Intramuscular lipid content | ||
| Muscle morphology and metabolism | Muscle tissue biopsy (vastus lateralis) [54] | |
| • Glucose transporter type 4 receptor protein | ||
| • Intramuscular insulin-like growth factor 1 | ||
| • Glycogen content | ||
| • Muscle fiber cross-sectional area | ||
| • Muscle fibrertyping | ||
| Adipokines and Inflammatory markers | Adipose tissue biopsy [54] | |
| • TNF-α | ||
| • Interleukin-6 | ||
| • High molecular weight adiponectin | ||
| • C-Jun N-terminal kinase | ||
| • Serum C-reactive protein [55] | ||
| Body composition [53] | Bioelectrical impedance analysis | |
| • Skeletal muscle mass, skeletal muscle mass index | ||
| • Fat free mass | ||
| • Fat mass | ||
| • Body fat percentage | ||
| Computed tomography scan | ||
| • Abdominal and thigh girth, sagittal diameter | ||
| • Abdominal total, visceral and subcutaneous fat area | ||
| • Thigh total, intramuscular and subcutaneous fat area and muscle density (intramuscular lipid index) | ||
| • Thigh muscle area | ||
| Waist circumference | ||
| Body mass index | ||
| Exercise capacity and Functional status | Exercise stress test (maximal treadmill test with indirect calorimetry) | |
| • Peak aerobic capacity | ||
| • Anaerobic threshold | ||
| • Oxygen uptake efficiency slope | ||
| • Heart rate recovery | ||
| Muscle strength, power and endurance | ||
| Habitual and maximal gait speed | ||
| Static and dynamic balance | ||
| Chair stand and stair climb power | ||
| Neuropsychological profile | Geriatric Depression Scale | |
| Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index | ||
| Ewart’s Self-efficacy Scale | ||
| Cognitive function | ||
| • Mini Mental State Exam | ||
| • Word List Recognition and Recall | ||
| • Trail Making A and B | ||
| Actigraph sleep architecture over 7 days | ||
| • Total time in/out of bed | ||
| • Sleep latency, sleep efficiency | ||
| • Total time asleep | ||
| • Number of awakenings | ||
| Health-related quality of life | Medical Outcomes Study 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey | |
| Nutritional intake | Food frequency questionnaire of Bloch over past 4 months | |
| Energy expenditure | Resting metabolic rate via indirect calorimetry | |
| Habitual physical activity and sedentary behaviour via Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly | ||
| Actigraph accelerometers over 7 days | ||
| • Waking hours | ||
| • Wear time | ||
| • Total sedentary time, mean sedentary time, median sedentary time | ||
| • Percentage of time spent in sedentary (1 MET), light (<3 MET), moderate (3–6 MET) and vigorous (>6 MET) activity | ||
| • Total energy expenditure spent in sedentary (1 MET), light (<3 MET), moderate (3–6 MET) and vigorous (>6 MET) activity | ||
| • Physical activity level (PAL score) |
%S percent sensitivity, HOMA2 homeostatic model assessment 2, MET metabolic equivalent of task, TNF-α tissue necrosis factor alpha