Table 3.
Baseline participant characteristics
| Power | Sham | Total | |
|---|---|---|---|
| (n = 49) | (n = 54) | (n = 103) | |
| Demographics | |||
| Age (years) | 66.9 ± 4.7 | 68.8 ± 6.1 | 67.9 ± 5.5 |
| Sex (female) | 24.0 (49.0) | 27.0 ± (50.0) | 51.0 ± 0.5 |
| Smoking status | |||
| Current | 3.0 (6.1) | 3.0 (5.6) | 6.0 (5.8) |
| Past | 31.0 (63.3) | 33.0 (61.1) | 64.0 (62.1) |
| Ethnic origin | |||
| Caucasian | 49.0 (100.0) | 50.0 (92.6) | 99.0 (96.1) |
| Asian | 0.0 (0.0) | 2.0 (3.7) | 2.0 (1.9) |
| Indian | 0.0 (0.0) | 2.0 (3.7) | 2.0 (1.9) |
| Chronic diseases | |||
| Duration of diabetes (years) | 6.9 ± 5.1 | 9.1 ± 6.7 | 8.0 ± 6.0 |
| Number of chronic diseases | 5.1 ± 1.9 | 5.1 ± 1.8 | 5.1 ± 1.8 |
| Chronic diseases | |||
| Hypertension | 37.0 (75.5) | 39.0 (72.2) | 76.0 (73.8) |
| Osteoarthritis | 35.0 (71.4) | 33.0 (61.1) | 68.0 (66.0) |
| Cardiovascular diseases | 23.0 (46.9) | 27.0 (50.0) | 50.0 (48.5) |
| High cholesterol | 24.0 (49.0) | 21.0 (38.9) | 45.0 (43.7) |
| Cancer | 14.0 (28.6) | 17.0 (31.5) | 31.0 (30.1) |
| GERD (Reflux/Barrett’s esophagus) | 8.0 (16.3) | 14.0 (25.9) | 22.0 (21.4) |
| PVD | 10.0 (20.4) | 11.0 (20.4) | 21.0 (20.4) |
| IHD, MI, Angina | 8.0 (16.3) | 11.0 (20.4) | 19.0 (18.4) |
| Sleep apnea | 7.0 (14.3) | 12.0 (22.2) | 19.0 (18.4) |
| Depression | 10.0 (20.4) | 8.0 (14.8) | 18.0 (17.5) |
| Hypothyroidism | 7.0 (14.3) | 9.0 (16.7) | 16.0 (15.5) |
| Arrhythmia | 8.0 (16.3) | 6.0 (11.1) | 14.0 (13.6) |
| Ulcers (gastrointestinal tract) | 7.0 (14.3) | 7.0 (13.0) | 14.0 (13.6) |
| Osteoporosis/Osteopenia | 5.0 (10.2) | 8.0 (14.8) | 13.0 (12.6) |
| Gout | 7.0 (14.3) | 5.0 (9.3) | 12.0 (11.7) |
| Benign prostatic hyperplasia | 3.0 (6.1) | 8.0 (14.8) | 11.0 (10.7) |
| Chronic venous disease | 4.0 (8.2) | 6.0 (11.1) | 10.0 (9.7) |
| COPD/CAL | 2.0 (4.1) | 7.0 (13.0) | 9.0 (8.7) |
| Hyperthyroidism | 2.0 (4.1) | 6.0 (11.1) | 8.0 (7.8) |
| Esophagitis | 5.0 (10.2) | 3.0 (5.6) | 8.0 (7.8) |
| Health status | |||
| Weight (kg) | 89.5 ± 15.2 | 88.8 ± 18.8 | 89.1 ± 17.1 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 31.5 ± 4.7 | 31.6 ± 6.0 | 31.6 ± 5.4 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | |||
| Men | 112.4 ± 9.6 | 109.3 ± 11.5 | 110.8 ± 11.7 |
| Women | 109.6 ± 9.6 | 108.7 ± 11.5 | 109.1 ± 12.6 |
| Resting blood pressure (mmHg) | |||
| Systolic | 147.2 ± 17.9 | 145.1 ± 17.9 | 146.1 ± 17.9 |
| Diastolic | 78.9 ± 7.5 | 77.4 ± 10.2 | 78.1 ± 9.0 |
| Resting heart rate (bpm) | 65.2 ± 12.1 | 64.6 ± 8.4 | 64.9 ± 10.2 |
| Fasting glucose (mmol/L) | 7.4 ± 2.5 | 7.1 ± 2.2 | 7.3 ± 2.4 |
| Fasting insulin (mU/L) | 10.1 ± 5.9 | 11.1 ± 6.7 | 10.6 ± 6.3 |
| HbA1c (%) | 6.9 ± 0.9 | 7.3 ± 1.3 | 7.1 ± 1.1 |
| HOMA2-IR | 2.6 ± 1.0 | 2.9 ± 1.3 | 2.7 ± 1.1 |
| Cholesterol (mmol/L) | |||
| Total | 4.5 ± 1.1 | 4.2 ± 1.1 | 4.4 ± 1.1 |
| HDL | 1.2 ± 0.3 | 1.2 ± 0.4 | 1.2 ± 0.3 |
| LDL | 2.5 ± 0.9 | 2.3 ± 0.9 | 2.4 ± 0.9 |
| Triglycerides | 1.7 ± 1.0 | 1.7 ± 0.9 | 1.7 ± 0.9 |
| C-reactive protein (mg/L) | 3.8 ± 3.2 | 4.5 ± 4.9 | 4.2 ± 4.2 |
| Diabetic treatment | |||
| Diet only | 8.0 (16.0) | 10.0 (19.0) | 18.0 (17.0) |
| Oral hypoglycemics only | 34.0 (69.0) | 35.0 (65.0) | 69.0 (67.0) |
| Oral hypoglycemics and Insulin | 4.0 (8.0) | 7.0 (13.0) | 11.0 (11.0) |
| Insulin only | 3.0 (6.0) | 2.0 (4.0) | 5.0 (5.0) |
| Physical Function | |||
| Habitual gait speed (m/s) | 1.2 ± 0.2 | 1.2 ± 0.2 | 1.2 ± 0.2 |
| Maximal gait speed (m/s) | 1.9 ± 0.3 | 1.9 ± 0.3 | 1.9 ± 0.3 |
| 6MWT (m) | 551.1 ± 93.8 | 539.1 ± 95.3 | 544.8 ± 94.3 |
Values are means ± SD or n (%)
6MWT 6-Minute Walk Test, BMI body mass index, BPH benign prostatic hyperplasia, COPD/CAL chronic obstructive pulmonary disease/chronic airflow limitation, GERD gastro-esophageal reflux disease, HbA1c glycemic control, HDL high-density lipoprotein, HOMA2-IR homeostatic model assessment 2, IHD ischemic heart disease, LDL low-density lipoprotein, MI myocardial infarction, PVD peripheral vascular disease,