Figure 4.

This figure illustrates the potential pathways through which the components of physical activity (intensity, duration, mode, and frequency) as well as other conditioning strategies may lead to beneficial adaptation of brain structure and function. Note that the interventions/stimuli can be applied individually or in combination, and the induced physiologic strain and integration of humoral, metabolic, and molecular signalling, sensoring and transcription may be modulated by individual characteristics (age, sex, and clinical status) and/or other factors (e.g., nutritional supplements) to influence the nature of brain structure and function adaptation. AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase; BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; CRP, C-reactive protein; eNOS, endothelial nitric oxide synthase; IGF-1, insulin-like growth factor 1; IL-6, Interleukin 6; LTP, Long-term potentiation; NFkβ, nuclear factor kappa B; NO, nitric oxide; PGC-1α, Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator; RNS, reactive nitrogen species; ROS, reactive oxygen species; SIRT 1, Sirtuin 1; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor.