Table 1.
Overview of the studies in the meta-analysis including the moderators and the effect sizes
| First author | Year | Disadvantaged | Technology-enhanced condition | Material | Multimedia features (animation and/or music and sound) | Relevant and irrelevant interactive features | Comparison condition | Illustrations | Outcome measures | Average effect size (Hedges’ g) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Beagles-Roos | 1983 | No | “Television” (n = 24) |
A Story, A Story, Strega Nona Animated by Weston Woods Studios |
Yes | No | “Radio” (n = 24) | No | Story comprehension (3 measures) | 0.34 |
| Caplovitz (dissertation) | 2005 | No | “Talking book” (n = 48 + 44) |
The Story of Clifford, Elmo’s Noisy Day Talking book with plastic case for a paper book |
No | Yes, relevant and irrelevant | “Books only” (n = 47) |
Yes | Story comprehension (2 measures) Code-related skills (15 measures) |
−0.24 0.03 |
| Chiong |
2012 Contr 1 |
No | “Basic e-book” (n = 16) | iPad application | No | Yes, relevant | “Print book” (n = 16) | Yes | Story comprehension (1 measure) | 0.17 |
| Chiong |
2012 Contr 2 |
No | “Enhanced e-book” (n = 16) | iPad application | Yes | Yes, relevant and irrelevant | “Print book” (n = 16) | Yes | Story comprehension (1 measure) | −0.81 |
| Critelli (thesis) | 2011 | No | “E-book” (n = 5) |
Bubbles CD-ROM story |
Yes | No | “Print book” (n = 5) | Yes | Story comprehension (1 measure) Code-related skills (2 measures) |
0.00 −0.10 |
| De Jong | 2002 | Yes (low SES) | “Computer book – restricted” (n =12) |
P.B. Bear’s Birthday Party Bombilla |
Yes | Yes, relevant and irrelevant | “Regular book” (n = 12) | Yes | Story comprehension (2 measures) Code-related skills (6 measures) |
−0.27 −0.25 |
| De Jong | 2004 | Yes (low SES) | “Electronic book” (n = 18) |
I’ll Make You Well Again Said the Bear, Big Party for Tiger, Tiger and Bear in Traffic Het Spectrum Electronic Publishing |
Yes | Yes, relevant and irrelevant | “Printed book” (n = 18) | Yes | Story comprehension (1 measure) | −0.53 |
| Gazella | 2003 | No | “Audiovisual” (n = 15) | Researcher-constructed story with videotaped puppets | Yes | No | “Audio-only” (n = 14) | No | Story comprehension (2 measures) | −0.11 |
| Gibbons | 1986 | No | “Audiovisual” (n = 48) | Researcher-constructed stories with animated puppets | Yes | No | “Audio” (n = 48) | No | Story comprehension (1 measure) | 0.52 |
| Gong | 2009 | No | “Bouncing Ball” (n = 24) | Talking books with a bouncing ball above the text being read aloud | No | Yes, only highlighting the text as it is read | “Story control” (n = 24) | Yes | Code-related skills (1 measure) | 0.60 |
| Hayes | 1986 | No | “Television” (n = 22) |
How the Whale Got Its Throat Television segment |
Yes | No | “Radio” (n = 22) | No | Story comprehension (2 measures) | −0.45 |
| Homer | 2014 | No | “Kinect with activities” (n = 12) |
Children Make Terrible Pets by Microsoft Games Studio for the Kinect |
Yes | Yes, relevant and irrelevant | “Book reading” (n = 14) | Yes | Story comprehension (3 measures) Vocabulary – expressive (1 measure) Code-related skills (2 measures) Engagement (1 measure) |
0.26 0.37 −0.22 −0.57 |
| Karemaker | 2008 | No | “ORT for Clicker” (n = 27) | Talking books from the Oxford Reading Tree for Clicker series by Crick Software |
No | Yes, relevant | “ORT Big Book” (n = 27) | Yes | Code-related skills (5 measures) | −0.04 |
| Karemaker | 2010b | Yes (struggling readers) | “ORT for Clicker” (n = 17) |
Strawberry Jam, Kipper the Clown Oxford Reading Tree for Clicker series by Crick Software |
No | Yes, relevant | “ORT Big Book” (n = 17) | Yes | Code-related skills (9 measures) | 0.07 |
| Karemaker | 2010a | No | “ORT for Clicker” (n = 61) |
Strawberry Jam, Kipper the Clown Oxford Reading Tree for Clicker series by Crick Software |
No | Yes, relevant | “ORT Big Book” (n = 61) | Yes | Code-related skills (5 measures) | 0.20 |
| Korat |
2010 Contr 1 |
No | “Educational electronic book - Tractor” (n = 12) |
The tractor in the sandbox Researcher-constructed CD-ROM story |
Yes | Yes, relevant | “Print book” (n = 12) | Yes | Communication by the child (1 measure) | 2.06a |
| Korat |
2010 Contr 2 |
No | “Commercial electronic book - Grandma” (n = 12) |
Just grandma and me Living Books series |
Yes | Yes, relevant and irrelevant | “Print book” (n = 12) | Yes | Communication by the child (1 measure) | 2.06 |
| Korat |
2007 Contr 1 |
Yes (low SES) | “E-book” (n = 25) |
The tractor in the sandbox Researcher-constructed CD-ROM story |
Yes | Yes, relevant | “Adult book reading” (n = 25) | Yes | Vocabulary – receptive (1 measure) Code-related skills (2 measures) |
0.06 0.29 |
| Korat |
2007 Contr 2 |
No | “E-book” (n = 25) |
The tractor in the sandbox Researcher-constructed CD-ROM story |
Yes | Yes, relevant | “Adult book reading” (n = 25) | Yes | Vocabulary – receptive (1 measure) Code-related skills (2 measures) |
−0.03 −0.18 |
| Korat |
2007 Contr 1 & 2 |
No | “E-book” (n = 50) |
The tractor in the sandbox Researcher-constructed CD-ROM story |
Yes | Yes, relevant | “Adult book reading” (n = 50) | Yes | Story comprehension (1 measure) | −0.13 |
| Korat | 2013 | Yes (low SES) |
“Electronic book” (n = 30) |
Confused Yuval Researcher-constructed CD-ROM story |
Yes | Yes, relevant | “Print book” (n = 30) | Yes | Vocabulary – receptive (1 measure) Code-related skills (2 measures) |
−0.17 0.11 |
| Meringoff | 1980 | No | “Television” (n = 24) |
A Story, A Story Animated by Weston Woods Studios |
Yes | No | “Book” (n = 24) | Yes | Story comprehension (3 measures) Communication by child (1 measure) |
−0.21 −1.08 |
| Moody | 2010 | Yes (low SES) | “Adult-led e-book” (n = 25) |
Little Monster at School Living Books series |
Yes | Yes, relevant and irrelevant | “Adult-led traditional storybook” (n = 25) | Yes | Engagement (3 measures) Communication by child (5 measures) |
0.24 0.04 |
| Neuman | 1989 | No | “Televised version” (n = 17) | Simon’s Book | Yes | No | “Storybook” (n = 10) | Yes | Story comprehension (3 measures) | 0.32 |
| Noel (thesis) | 2013 | Yes (low SES) | “Electronic book” (n = 3) |
How Rocket Learned to Read, Tacky the Penguin, Elmer’s Special Day, Elmer and Rose, The Bremen Town Musicians, Curious George, Jumanji Applications on the iPad |
Mix | Mix | “Print book” (n = 3) | Yes | Vocabulary – expressive (1 measure) Engagement (1 measure) |
0.15 0.56 |
| Okolo |
1996 Contr 1 |
Yes (learning disabled students or poor readers) | “High-animation condition” (n = 20) |
Harry and the Haunted House Living Book series |
Yes | Yes, relevant and irrelevant | “Adult-reader” (n = 20) | Yes | Story comprehension (2 measures) Communication by child (1 measure) |
−1.19 0.64 |
| Okolo |
1996 Contr 2 |
Yes (learning disabled students or poor readers) | “Low-animation condition” (n = 20) |
Thomas’s snowsuit DISCIS book series |
No | Yes, relevant | “Adult-reader” (n = 20) | Yes | Story comprehension (2 measures) Communication by child (1 measure) |
−0.28 0.53 |
| Parish-Morris |
2013 Study 2 |
No | “Electronic console books” (n = 20) |
The Berenstain Bears, Dora the Explorer by Fisher-Price PowerTouch Learning System |
No | Yes, relevant and irrelevant | “Traditional book” (n = 20) | Yes | Story comprehension (2 measures) | 0.65 |
| Pezdek |
1984 Contr 1 |
No (3rd grade) | “Television” (n = 24) |
A Story, A Story, Strega Nona Animated by Weston Woods Studios |
Yes | No | “Radio” (n = 24) | No | Story comprehension (3 measures) | 1.02 |
| Pezdek |
1984 Contr 2 |
No (6th grade) | “Television” (n = 24) |
A Story, A Story, Strega Nona Animated by Weston Woods Studios |
Yes | No | “Radio” (n = 24) | No | Story comprehension (3 measures) | 0.55 |
| Pezdek | 1984 | No | “Audiovisual match” (n = 24) | Bert and Ernie and Big Birds segments from the TV show Sesame Street |
Yes | No | “Audio only” (n = 24) | No | Story comprehension (2 measures) | 0.59 |
| Ricci | 2002 | No | “Interactive participant” (n = 16) |
The Ugly Duckling Interactive story |
Yes | Yes, relevant and irrelevant | “Audio only” (n = 17) | No | Story comprehension (4 measures) | 0.23 |
| Robb (dissertation) |
2010 Contr 1 |
No | “Interactive reading with parent” (n = 23) |
Curious George Goes to a Chocolate Factory Read With Me DVD System |
Yes | Yes, relevant | “Print book reading with parent” (n = 12) | Yes | Story comprehension (3 measures) Engagement (1 measure) |
0.21 −0.54 |
| Robb (dissertation) |
2010 Contr 2 |
No | “Interactive reading alone” (n = 23) |
Curious George Goes to a Chocolate Factory Read With Me DVD System |
Yes | Yes, relevant | “Print book reading with parent” (n = 12) | Yes | Story comprehension (3 measures) Engagement (1 measure) |
−0.06 0.10 |
| Segal-Drori |
2010 Contr 1 |
Yes (low SES) | “E-book independently” (n = 32) |
The tractor in the sandbox Confused Yuval Researcher-constructed CD-ROM stories |
Yes | Yes, relevant | “Print book with adult” (n = 16) | Yes | Code-related skills (3 measures) | −0.05 |
| Segal-Drori |
2010 Contr 2 |
Yes (low SES) | “E-book with adult instruction” (n = 32) |
The tractor in the sandbox Confused Yuval Researcher-constructed CD-ROM stories |
Yes | Yes, relevant | “Print book with adult” (n = 16) | Yes | Code-related skills (3 measures) | 1.69 |
| Segers | 2006 | Yes (special needs, physical disabilities) | “Computer story” (n = 9) |
Treasure Chest with the Mouse Researcher-constructed CD-ROM stories |
Yes | Yes, relevant | “Teacher reading” (n = 8) | Yes | Vocabulary (2 measures) Engagement (1 measures) |
0.62 −0.12 |
| Segers |
2004 Contr 1 |
No | “Computer reading” (n = 41) |
Treasure Chest with the Mouse Researcher-constructed CD-ROM stories |
Yes | Yes, relevant | “Teacher reading” (n = 41) | Yes | Story comprehension (1 measure) Vocabulary – expressive (1 measure) |
−0.08 −0.02 |
| Segers |
2004 Contr 2 |
Yes (immigrant) | “Computer reading” (n = 30) |
Treasure Chest with the Mouse Researcher-constructed CD-ROM stories |
Yes | Yes, relevant | “Teacher reading” (n = 30) | Yes | Story comprehension (1 measure) Vocabulary – expressive (1 measure) |
−0.41 −0.18 |
| Shamir | 2012 | Yes (developmental delays) | “E-book” (n = 42) |
Confused Yuval Researcher-constructed CD-ROM story |
Yes | Yes, relevant | “Printed book with adult” (n = 34) | Yes | Vocabulary – receptive (1 measures) Code-related eracy skills (2 measures) |
0.45 0.24 |
| Sharp | 1995 | Yes (low SES, small vocabulary) | “Helpful video” (n = 18) | Commercial video clips with researcher-constructed narratives | Yes | No | “No video” (n = 18) | No | Story comprehension (2 measures) | 1.43 |
| Silverman |
2013 Study 1 |
Yes (low SES, limited English proficiency) | “Video” (n = 42) |
Arthur, Martha Speaks TV shows |
Yes | No | “Read aloud” (n = 36) | Yes | Vocabulary (2 measures) | −0.24 |
| Smeets |
2014 Contr 1 |
No | “Animated e-book” (n = 36) |
Pete on the Pavement, Bear Is In Love With Butterfly, Rokko the Crocodile, Bolder and the Boat, Cycling With Grandpa Het Woeste Woud |
Yes | No | “Static e-book” (n = 17) | Yes | Story comprehension (3 measures) Vocabulary (3 measures) |
0.11 −0.18 |
| Smeets |
2014 Contr 2 |
No | “Interactive animated e-book” (n = 33) |
Pete on the Pavement, Bear Is In Love With Butterfly, Rokko the Crocodile, Bolder and the Boat, Cycling With Grandpa Het Woeste Woud |
Yes | Yes, relevant | “Static e-book” (n = 16) | Yes | Story comprehension (3 measures) Vocabulary (3 measures) |
0.19 0.13 |
| Smeets |
2012 Exp 1 |
Yes (SLI) | “Video book” (n = 28) |
Pete on the Pavement, Rokko the Crocodile, Bolder and the Boat, Little Kangaroo, Imitators, Dear Dear Het Woeste Woud |
Yes | No | “Static book” (n = 28) | Yes | Vocabulary – expressive (1 measure) | −0.25 |
| Smeets |
2012 Exp 2 |
Yes (SLI) | “Video with music and sounds” (n = 21) |
Pete on the Pavement, Rokko the Crocodile, Bolder and the Boat, Little Kangaroo, Imitators, Dear Dear, Bear Is In Love With Butterfly, Sweat-Naughty Bear Baboen Het Woeste Woud |
Yes | No | “Static-no music or sound” (n = 21) | Yes | Vocabulary – expressive (1 measure) | 0.07 |
| Stine (dissertation) | 1993 | Yes (low SES) | “CD-ROM interactive computer-based books” (n = 8) | Stories and More by IBM | Yes | Yes, relevant | “Print books” (n = 8) | Yes | Story comprehension (1 measure) Vocabulary (1 measure) |
1.31 1.55 |
| Terrell | 1996 | No | “Videotape” (n = 26) | An animated segment, including music, from a children’s TV show with a researcher-constructed narrative | Yes | No | “Storybook” (n = 26) | Yes | Vocabulary (3 measures) | −0.58 |
| Valkenburg | 1997 | No | “Television” (n = 64) |
Strega Nonna Doctor de Soto Animated by Weston Woods Studios |
Yes | No | “Radio” (n = 64) | No | Story comprehension (1 measure) | 0.14 |
| Verhallen |
2006 Contr 1 |
Yes (low SES, 2nd language) | “4x Multimedia” (n = 10) |
Winnie the Witch Bombilla |
Yes | No | “4x Static” (n = 10) | Yes | Story comprehension (1 measure) Vocabulary – expressive (1 measure) |
1.16 1.07 |
| Verhallen |
2006 Contr 2 |
Yes (low SES, 2nd language) | “1x Multimedia” (n = 10) |
Winnie the Witch Bombilla |
Yes | No | “1x Static” (n = 10) | Yes | Story comprehension (1 measure) Vocabulary- expressive (1 measure) |
0.36 0.62 |
| Verhallen |
2009a Contr 1 |
Yes (low SES, 2nd language) | “4x video” (n = 22) |
Winnie the Witch Bombilla |
Yes | No | “4x static” (n = 20) | Yes | Story comprehension (1 measure) Vocabulary – expressive (1 measure) Engagement (1 measure) |
0.54 0.54 0.28 |
| Verhallen |
2009a Contr 2 |
Yes (low SES, 2nd language) | “1x video” (n = 21) |
Winnie the Witch Bombilla |
Yes | No | “1x static” (n = 23) | Yes | Story comprehension (1 measure) Vocabulary – expressive (1 measure) |
0.39 0.59 |
| Verhallen (dissertation) |
2009b Contr 1 |
Yes (low SES, 2nd language, low L2) | “Video” (n = 22) |
Winnie the Witch Bombilla |
Yes | No | “Static” (n = 20) |
Yes | Story comprehension (2 measures) Vocabulary – expressive (1 measure) |
0.98 0.02 |
| Verhallen (dissertation) |
2009b Contr 2 |
Yes (low SES, 2nd language) | “Video” (n = 13) |
Winnie the Witch Bombilla |
Yes | No | “Static” (n = 12) | Yes | Story comprehension (2 measures) Vocabulary – expressive (1 measure) |
−0.23 0.89 |
| Verhallen | 2010 | Yes (low SES, 2nd language) | “Video” (n = 34) |
Winnie the Witch Bombilla |
Yes | No | “Static” (n = 29) | Yes | Vocabulary (2 measures) | 0.36 |
| Williamson |
1983 Contr 1 |
No (kindergarten) | “Animated film” (n = 10) |
Petunia Animated film of the story while researcher reads it |
Yes | No | “Tradebook” (n = 10) | Yes | Story comprehension (2 measures) | 0.15 |
| Williamson |
1983 Contr 2 |
No (third grade) | “Animated film” (n = 10) |
Petunia Animated film of the story while researcher reads it |
Yes | No | “Tradebook” (n = 10) | Yes | Story comprehension (2 measures) | 1.00 |
a
Winsorized value.