Table 2. Review of marine taxa exhibiting climate-related tolerance and greater parental care compared to their congeneric counterparts, respectively.
| Marine taxa having evolved brooding and parental care and exhibiting higher stress tolerance; life history strategy | Congeners having less parental care and lower stress tolerance; life history strategy | Presumed environmental factors tied to loss of parental care | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cowries, Gastropoda, Cypraeidae: Seven genera/sub-genera independently evolved direct development with crawl-away juveniles | All genera have representative broadcast-spawning sibling clades | OA via high CO2 upwelling zones, eutrophication, temperature | 49 |
| Chilean oyster, Ostrea chilensis: veligers brooded in infrabranchial chamber of female and pelagic larval phase is from minutes up to 24 h | Olympia oyster, Ostrea lurida: brooding for 10 days in mantle cavity, veliger larvae with 2-3 week long pelagic stage | OA via high CO2 upwelling zones and estuaries with extreme salinity fluctuations | 50, 51, 52 |
| Cushion star, Cryptasterina hystera: live bearing direct developers | Cryptasterina pentagona: gonochoric broadcast-spawning sibling species | Rapid environmental alteration, temperature based (warming) | 53,54 |
| Sea star, Crossaster papposus: lecitotrophic larvae, development through non-feeding larvae | Echinoderm species with planktotrophic larvae | OA manipulation experiments | 19,31 |
| Slipper limpet, Crepidula fornicata: egg capsule brooding | Mollusk larvae from broadcast spawning parents (as morphological variables) | OA manipulation experiments | 55 |
| Capitella capitata, benthic larvae | Species complex/ Sibling species | Pollution and oil spill colonization | 33,56,57 |
| The dorvilleid polychaete, genus Ophryotrocha | Species complex/Sibling species | Highly organic (polluted) areas such as harbours | 34 |
| Polydora ciliata, brooder | Species complex/Sibling species | Pollution, red tide, fish pond; long term disturbance | 33 |
| Streblospio benedicti, brooder | Both strategies (poecilogony) | Oil spill | 33 |
| Pygospio elegans, brooder | All can have both strategies (poecilogony); brooding is a relatively rare life-history strategy in non- disturbed habitats | Organic matter, pollution. | 22,33,58 |
| Peloscolex benendeni, direct development, and Heteromastus filiformis, lecithrotrophic larvae | Assumed species complex | First colonizers after major disturbances, consistent dominances in highly polluted areas | 33 |
| Streblospio shrubsolii, brooder | Assumed species complex | Pollution, oil | 33 |
Poecilogonous and species complexes are noted. Comparisons use the best available data.