Table 2.

Examples of reprogramming of the immunogenome by the microbiota

Cell type	Influence	Microbial signal(s)	References
Macrophages	Deposition of activating histone marks, enhanced cytokine expression	Unknown	[40, 132]
Macrophages	HDAC inhibition, reduced cytokine expression	Butyrate	[41]
Regulatory T cells	HDAC inhibition, acetylation of FoxP3 CNS1 region, induction of proliferation, upregulation of Uhrf1	Butyrate	[42–45]
T helper 17 cells	Transcriptional reprogramming through epithelially produced SAA1 and SAA2	Epithelial attachment	[47, 48]
Neutrophils	Induction of neutrophil aging, steady-state granulopoiesis, stimulation of migration through SAA1 and SAA2	TLR ligands	[133–135]
Innate lymphoid cells	Transcriptional reprogramming, cytokine induction	Unknown	[133–135]
Natural killer T cells	Mucosal recruitment via CXCL16, cytokine production	Glycosphingolipids	[52, 136, 137]
γδ T cells	Transcriptional reprogramming	Unknown	[51]

HDAC histone deacetylase, TLR Toll-like receptor