Table 2.
Nutrient intake of food and food and supplement (total) sources, proportions not meeting recommended intake or exceeding upper limits, as well as respective plasma concentrations for nonsupplement users (NSU) and subgroups of supplement users (SU)
| NSU |
SU− |
SU+ |
||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N | % | Median | IQR | N | % | Median | IQR | N | % | Median | IQR | NSU versus SU−, P | SU− versus SU+, P | |
| Men | ||||||||||||||
| Vitamin A | 2268 | 67.4 | 204 | 6.1 | 893 | 26.5 | ||||||||
| Food intake, μg RE day−1 | 869 | 640–1205 | 885 | 644–1182 | 919 | 667–1262 | 0.90 | 0.26 | ||||||
| Total intake, μg RE day−1 | – | – | 1730 | 1382–2194 | ||||||||||
| <EAR 500 μg RE day−1 | 253 | 11.2 | 17 | 8.3 | 1 | 0.1 | ||||||||
| >GL 1500 μg RE day−1 | 364 | 16.0 | 25 | 12.3 | 582 | 65.2 | ||||||||
| >GL 1500 μg retinol day−1 | 268 | 11.8 | 18 | 8.8 | 251* | 28.1 | ||||||||
| Plasma retinol, μmol L−1 | 1.75 | 1.51–2.04 | 1.73 | 1.52–1.99 | 1.85 | 1.58–2.14 | 0.83 | 0.002 | ||||||
| <0.70 μmol L−1 | 2 | 0.1 | 0 | 1 | 0.1 | |||||||||
| Vitamin D | 463 | 70.6 | 41 | 6.3 | 152 | 23.2 | ||||||||
| Food intake, μg day−1 | 3.19 | 2.06–4.70 | 3.23 | 1.71–4.55 | 3.33 | 2.13–5.23 | 0.71 | 0.43 | ||||||
| Total intake, μg day−1 | – | – | 7.22 | 5.51–9.46 | ||||||||||
| >SUL 25 μg day−1 | 1 | 0.2 | 0 | 0 | ||||||||||
| Serum 25(OH)D2, nmol L−1 | 1.50 | 1.00–2.00 | 1.50 | 1.06–1.75 | 1.25 | 1.00–2.00 | 0.64 | 0.91 | ||||||
| Serum 25(OH)D3, nmol L−1 | 59.9 | 44.9–76.1 | 63.6 | 49.4–75.4 | 66.1 | 53.3–84.2 | 0.42 | 0.26 | ||||||
| <25 nmol L−1 | 13 | 2.8 | 0 | 1 | 0.7 | |||||||||
| <40 nmol L−1 | 83 | 17.9 | 5 | 12.2 | 13 | 8.6 | ||||||||
| <75 nmol L−1 | 342 | 73.9 | 31 | 75.6 | 96 | 63.2 | ||||||||
| Vitamin E | 2268 | 67.4 | 601 | 17.9 | 496 | 14.8 | ||||||||
| Food intake, mg α-TE day−1 | 10.1 | 7.6–13.1 | 10.7 | 8.4–14.1 | 10.5 | 8.2–13.7 | <0.001 | 0.028 | ||||||
| Total intake, mg α-TE day−1 | – | – | 18.3 | 13.9–26.8 | ||||||||||
| >GL 540 mg α- TE day−1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0.8 | ||||||||||
| α-tocopherol, μmol L−1 | 24.7 | 20.9–29.3 | 25.3 | 21.6–29.9 | 27.5 | 23.0–34.1 | 0.049 | <0.001 | ||||||
| <12 μmol L−1 | 15 | 0.7 | 0 | 1 | 0.2 | |||||||||
| γ-tocopherol, μmol L−1 | 1.69 | 1.29–2.23 | 1.62 | 1.24–2.11 | 1.41 | 0.95–1.86 | 0.032 | 0.001 | ||||||
| EPA+DHA | 2268 | 67.4 | 318 | 9.5 | 779 | 23.1 | ||||||||
| Food intake, g day−1 | 0.14 | 0.07–0.36 | 0.17 | 0.08–0.45 | 0.18 | 0.08–0.47 | 0.014 | 0.82 | ||||||
| Total intake, g day−1 | – | – | 0.39 | 0.19–0.91 | ||||||||||
| Plasma EPA+DHA, μmol L−1 | 256 | 197–338 | 264 | 205–354 | 324 | 238–429 | 0.08 | <0.001 | ||||||
| Women | ||||||||||||||
| Vitamin A | 1852 | 56.3 | 354 | 10.8 | 1085 | 33.0 | ||||||||
| Food intake, μg RE day−1 | 750 | 558–1024 | 773 | 600–1025 | 794 | 605–1068 | 0.25 | 0.26 | ||||||
| Total intake, μg RE day−1 | – | – | 1583 | 1320–2062 | ||||||||||
| <EAR 400 μg RE day−1 | 173 | 9.3 | 24 | 6.8 | 0 | |||||||||
| >GL 1500 μg RE day−1 | 235 | 12.7 | 40 | 11.3 | 615 | 56.7 | ||||||||
| >GL 1500 μg retinol day−1 | 193 | 10.4 | 25 | 7.1 | 256* | 23.6 | ||||||||
| Plasma retinol, μmol L−1 | 1.67 | 1.43–1.96 | 1.62 | 1.39–1.93 | 1.77 | 1.53–2.04 | 0.09 | <0.001 | ||||||
| <0.70 μmol L−1 | 6 | 0.3 | 0 | 2 | 0.2 | |||||||||
| Vitamin D | 438 | 58.9 | 83 | 11.2 | 223 | 30.0 | ||||||||
| Food intake, μg day−1 | 2.51 | 1.67–3.77 | 2.36 | 1.67–3.58 | 2.53 | 1.76–4.15 | 0.97 | 0.52 | ||||||
| Total intake, μg day−1 | – | – | 6.34 | 4.71–8.38 | ||||||||||
| >SUL 25 μg day−1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||||||||||
| Serum 25(OH)D2, nmol L−1 | 1.50 | 1.25–2.00 | 1.50 | 1.25–2.00 | 1.50 | 1.25–2.00 | 0.19 | 0.10 | ||||||
| Serum 25(OH)D3, nmol L−1 | 55.3 | 42.2–71.6 | 53.7 | 40.7–73.1 | 67.1 | 53.2–82.9 | 0.58 | <0.001 | ||||||
| <25 nmol L−1 | 19 | 4.3 | 5 | 6.0 | 4 | 1.8 | ||||||||
| <40 nmol L−1 | 94 | 21.5 | 19 | 22.9 | 19 | 8.5 | ||||||||
| <75 nmol L−1 | 344 | 78.5 | 66 | 79.5 | 136 | 61.0 | ||||||||
| Vitamin E | 1852 | 56.3 | 638 | 19.4 | 801 | 24.3 | ||||||||
| Food intake, mg α-TE day−1 | 8.4 | 6.5–10.6 | 8.6 | 6.9–11.0 | 9.0 | 7.0–11.4 | 0.011 | 0.12 | ||||||
| Total intake, mg α- TE day−1 | – | – | 19.2 | 13.6–33.8 | ||||||||||
| >GL 540 mg α- TE day−1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0.4 | ||||||||||
| α-tocopherol, μmol L−1 | 26.2 | 22.2–30.6 | 27.5 | 24.0–32.8 | 29.6 | 25.0–36.0 | <0.001 | <0.001 | ||||||
| <12 μmol L−1 | 9 | 0.5 | 4 | 0.6 | 2 | 0.2 | ||||||||
| γ-tocopherol, μmol L−1 | 1.76 | 1.33–2.36 | 1.68 | 1.24–2.28 | 1.31 | 0.89–1.85 | 0.024 | <0.001 | ||||||
| EPA+DHA | 1852 | 56.3 | 573 | 17.4 | 866 | 26.3 | ||||||||
| Food intake, g day−1 | 0.11 | 0.06–0.31 | 0.12 | 0.06–0.33 | 0.14 | 0.06–0.34 | 0.31 | 0.16 | ||||||
| Total intake, g day−1 | – | – | 0.29 | 0.17–0.62 | ||||||||||
| Plasma EPA+DHA, μmol L−1 | 289 | 223–373 | 290 | 227–394 | 358 | 272–469 | 0.22 | <0.001 | ||||||
DHA, docosahexaenoic acid; EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid; EAR, estimated average requirement; GL, guideline; IQR, interquartile range; RE, retinol equivalent; SUL, safe upper limit; TE, tocopherol equivalent; n.s., nonsignificant (Mann–Whitney test with significance level of P < 0.017).
*
Participants above the GL from only preformed retinol supplement sources comprised 48 (5.4%) men and 60 (5.5%) women.