Table 1. Summary of the multi-model inference conducted to explain avian responses to human disturbance.

Predictor	Levels	Estimate	s.e.	Importance
All birds (180 species, 457 effect sizes)
Intercept		0.736	0.599
Habitat contrast
	Natural versus urban	−0.941	0.632	1
	Rural versus suburban	−1.438	0.762	—
	Rural versus urban	−1.689	0.589	—
	Suburban versus urban	−1.690	0.740	—
	Low versus high in urbanized areas	−1.274	0.635	—
	Low versus high in recreational nature	−0.684	0.593	—
	Low versus high in islands	−0.894	0.717	—
	Low versus high in reserve	−1.622	0.723	—
Body mass		−0.315	0.075	0.98
Clutch size		0.052	0.021	0.93
Diet
	Herbivorous	−0.232	0.131	0.91
	Omnivorous	−0.260	0.105	—
Habitat openness		0.182	0.091	0.83
Migration		0.127	0.080	0.70
Group size
	5–50 Individuals	−0.060	0.088	0.51
	>100 Individuals	0.097	0.138	—
Foraging habit		−0.007	0.109	0.41
Rural versus urban birds (103 species, 324 effect sizes)
Intercept		−0.662	0.309
Body mass		−0.403	0.088	0.99
Diet
	Herbivorous	−0.376	0.164	0.88
	Omnivorous	−0.244	0.130	—
Habitat openness		0.215	0.105	0.85
Clutch size		0.035	0.025	0.64
Migration		0.123	0.095	0.62
Group size
	5–50 Individuals	−0.100	0.108	0.56
	>100 Individuals	0.091	0.176	—
Foraging habit		0.079	0.130	0.46

Results are shown from both a meta-analysis using the full data set (all birds) and a meta-analysis focusing on the contrast between rural and urban populations. Values are average coefficients of models (estimate), their associated standard error (s.e.), and the importance of each factor in explaining species responses to human disturbance (the closer than 1, the most important the factor). Habitat contrasts presented as ‘low versus high in' refer to contrast between populations experiencing low and high human disturbance within a given habitat type.