Table 3.

Frequency of Non-Medical Use of Prescription Pain Medications and Emergency Department Utilization, NSDUH 2008–2013 (N=228,556)

	Past Year ED Utilization
	Unadjust ed	Model 1	Model 2	Model 3	Model 4	Model 5
	Odds Ratio, 95% CI	Adjusted OR, 95% CI	Adjusted OR, 95% CI	Adjusted OR, 95% CI	Adjusted OR, 95% CI	Adjusted OR, 95% CI
Frequency of NMU
200–365 days	3.20 (2.70–3.97)	2.86 (2.40–3.41)	2.46 (2.06–2.94)	2.07 (1.71–2.50)	1.69 (1.38–2.07)	1.08 (0.76–1.55)
100–199 days	2.41 (2.05–2.84)	2.09 (1.78–2.45)	1.76 (1.49–2.08)	1.53 (1.28–1.82)	1.34 (1.11–1.60)	0.85 (0.59–1.23)
30–99 days	2.01 (1.80–2.26)	1.83 (1.64–2.05)	1.66 (1.48–1.86)	1.49 (1.31–1.70)	1.38 (1.20–1.58)	0.91 (0.66–1.25)
1–29 days	1.38 (1.27–1.49)	1.36 (1.25–1.47)	1.26 (1.16–1.36)	1.18 (1.09–1.28)	1.15 (1.06–1.25)	0.78 (0.56–1.09)
No past year NMU	REF	REF	REF	REF	REF	REF
Past year opioid withdrawal symptoms	3.53 (3.13–3.98)	---	---	---	1.62 (1.39–1.89)	1.62 (1.38–1.90)
Source of prescription pain medications
Physician	2.79 (2.39–3.27)	---	---	---	---	2.44 (1.75–3.39)
Family or friends	1.43 (1.34–1.53)	---	---	---	---	1.30 (0.93–1.80)
Other source	1.71 (1.50–1.94)	---	---	---	---	1.41 (1.07–1.85)
No past year NMU	REF	---	---	---	---	REF

NSDUH=National Survey on Drug Use and Health; ED=Emergency Department; OR=odds ratio; CI=confidence interval; NMU=Non-medical use. Model 1 adjusted for age, gender, race/ethnicity, education, insurance, family income, employment, marital status, rural location, and survey year. Model 2 includes Model 1 plus self-rated health and past year serious psychological distress. Model 3 includes Model 2 plus abuse or dependence of alcohol, cannabis, and other illicit drugs (heroin, cocaine, hallucinogens and inhalants), non-medical use of other prescription medications, and nicotine dependence. Model 4 includes Model 3 plus past year opioid withdrawal symptoms. Model 5 includes Model 4 plus self-reported source of prescription pain medications.