Table 1.

Ceramide regulation by HFD or fatty acids.

Tissue	Experimental model	Ceramide species	Alteration	Reference
Liver	60% HFD for 5 weeks in Wistar rats	Total ceramide	Increased	[40]
	60% HFD for 16 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, C20:0, and	Increased	[9]
		C24:0	Decreased
	30% HFD with 40% fructose for 2 weeks in Syrian Golden hamsters	C14:0, C18:0, C18:1, and C20:0	Increased	[39]
	34% HFD for 3 weeks in Wistar rats	C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, C18:1, and C24:1	Increased (nuclei)	[29]
		C14:0, C16:0, C18:0,	Increased (total)
	42% HFD for 16 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C18:0, and C20:0	Increased	[11]
		C24:0, C24:1	Decreased
	42% HFD for 3 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C20:0, C22:0	Increased	[11]
		C24:0, C24:1	Decreased
	42% HFD for 6 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C18:0, C20:0, C22:0, C24:1, C24:0, and total ceramide	Increased	[8]
	60% HFD for 4 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C16:0, C22:0, and total ceramide	Increased	[12]
	0.3 mM palmitate for ≤24 h in primary rat hepatocytes	C16:0	Increased	[43]
Skeletal muscle	42% HFD for 16 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C16:0, C18:0	Increased	[11]
	42% HFD for 3 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C18:0	Increased	[11]
	42% HFD for 6 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C16:0, C18:0, C20:0, C22:0, C24:1, C24:0, and total ceramide	Increased	[8]
	10-week HFD in 25-month-old Wistar rat	Total ceramide	Increased	[21]
	300 μM palmitate for 3 days during differentiation in human myotubes	Total ceramide, primarily C16:0, but except for C24:1	Increased	[18]
	Obese patient samples	C16:0, C18:0, C20:0, C22:0, and total ceramide	Increased	[10]
	60% HFD for 6 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C16:0, C18:0, C18:1, and total ceramide	Increased	[41]
	60% HFD for 10 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C16:0, C18:0, C18:1, and total ceramide	Increased	[13]
	42% HFD for 6 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C16:0, C18:0, and total ceramide	Increased	[68]
		C24:1	Decreased
	0.75 mM palmitate for 16 h in C2C12 myotubes	C16:0, C22:0, and total ceramide	Increased	[12]
	60% HFD for 4 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C16:0, C18:0, and total ceramide	Increased	[12]
	0.75 mM palmitate for 16 h in C2C12 myotubes	Total ceramide, total glucosylceramide	Increased	[65]
	0.75 mM palmitate for 16 h in C2C12 myotubes	Total ceramide	Increased	[23]
	1.25 mM palmitate for 14 h in C2C12 myotubes	C16:0, C18:0, C24:0, C24:1, and total ceramide	Increased	[14]
Adipose tissue	42% HFD for 16 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C16:0, C18:0, C20:0, and C22:0	Increased	[11]
	Obese patient samples	C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, C18:1, and C22:1	Increased	[17]
	55% HFD for 18 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C16:0, C18:0	Increased	[17]
		C22:0, C24:0	Decreased
	60% HFD for 16 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C16:0, C18:0, and C18:1	Increased	[16]
		C16:0, C18:0, and C18:1	Increased
Plasma/serum	60% HFD for 16 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C16:0, C18:0, C20:0, and C24:1	Increased	[16]
	31% HFD in diabetic Rhesus Macaque monkeys	C14:0, C16:0, C18:0, C20:0, C22:0, and C24:0	Increased	[7]
	60% HFD for 13 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C20:0, C22:0, C24:0, and total ceramide	Increased	[30]
	60% HFD for 8 weeks in Long Evans rats	Total ceramide	Increased	[24]
Aorta	100 μM palmitate for 8 h in primary bovine aortic endothelial cells	C16:0	Increased	[89]
	60% HFD for 2 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C16:0, C18:0, and C22:0	Increased	[89]
Heart	45% HFD for 16 weeks in 18-month-old C57BL/6 mice	Total ceramide	Increased	[19]
	41% palmitate-enriched HFD for 12 weeks in C57BL/6	C16:0, C20:0, and C20:1	Increased	[98]
	60% HFD for 12 weeks in 40–44-week-old C57BL/6 mice	C18:0	Increased	[20]
	60% milk-fat based HFD for 8 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	d16:1-base ceramide	Increased	[25]
	60% HFD for 16 weeks in C57BL/6 mice	C16:0, C18:0, C18:1, C20:0, and C24:1	Increased	[15]