Table 5.
Species | Breeda | Characteristics indicating the presence of dystonia | Genetic defect/pathophysiology | Denomination in veterinary medicine | Assumed comparable type of human dystonia |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dog | Cavalier King Charles Spaniel | Episodes of involuntary twisting movements and abnormal postures of trunk and extremities with muscular hypertonicity, resulting in complete immobility | Autosomal-recessive mode of inheritance 15.7 kb deletion in the gene BCAN (encoding brain-specific extracellular matrix-proteoglycan brevican) | Episodic falling/hypertonicity/sudden collapse | Paroxysmal (non-)kinesiogenic dystonia |
Episodes are inducible by excitement/stress or exercise | |||||
Duration of episodes: up to minutes | |||||
Consciousness is unaltered | |||||
Treatment with benzodiazepines (clonazepam 0,5 mg/kg) and carbonic anhydrase inhibitors (acetazolamide) can be attempted | |||||
Scottish Terrier | Episodes of involuntary movements, starting with an increase in muscle tone and arching of the back, stiffness of extremities resulting in loss of balance | Unknown/autosomal-recessive mode of inheritance serotonergic and/or dopaminergic dysfunctions are presumed | Scottie cramp | Paroxysmal (non-)kinesiogenic dystonia | |
Episodes are inducible by stress and effort/exercise as well as by amphetamine (induces dopaminergic overactivity) | |||||
Duration of episodes: up to minutes | |||||
Consciousness is unaltered | |||||
EMG abnormalities | |||||
Treatment with benzodiazepines (diazepam 0,5–1,5 mg/kg) | |||||
Chinook dog | Episodes of involuntary twisting movements and abnormal postures of trunk and extremities with muscular hypertonicity, partly with head tremor | Unknown/probably autosomal-recessive mode of inheritance | Chinook seizures | Paroxysmal dyskinesia | |
Trigger: uncertain | |||||
Duration of episodes: up to 1 h | |||||
Consciousness is unaltered | |||||
Border Terrier | Episodes of involuntary movements | Unknown | Canine “epileptoid” cramping syndrome | Paroxysmal non-kinesiogenic dystonia | |
Episodes are inducible by excitement and waking from sleep | |||||
Often associated with mild tremor and gastrointestinal signs (borborygmi, vomiting and diarrhea) | |||||
Duration of episodes: 2–30 min up to three times per day | |||||
Yorkshire Terrier | Episodes of generalized, sustained and painful involuntary muscle contractions | Unknown/case report no changes found by MRI and CT | – | Paroxysmal hyperkinetic disorder | |
Duration of episodes up to 30 min, four times per day | |||||
Consciousness is unaltered | |||||
Boxer | Episodes of twisting movements and postures of trunk and extremities with muscle hypertonicity, torticollis, and “grimacing” | Unknown/hereditary | – | Paroxysmal dystonia | |
Episodes are inducible by excitement | |||||
Duration of episodes: ~1–5 min | |||||
Consciousness is unaltered | |||||
Bichon Frisé | Episodes of abnormal twisting movements and postures of trunk and extremities, kyphosis, and “grimacing” | Unknown/case report | – | Paroxysmal hyperkinetic disorder | |
Episodes occur spontaneously also at rest or are inducible by excitement/stress/effort | |||||
Consciousness is unaltered | |||||
German shorthaired pointer | Episodes of abnormal twisting movements and postures of trunk and extremities | Unknown/case report | – | Paroxysmal hyperkinetic disorder | |
Episodes are inducible by stress/excitement/effort | |||||
Duration of episodes: 10 min to 3 h | |||||
Consciousness is unaltered | |||||
Successful treatment with phenobarbital (30 mg/kg) | |||||
Dalmatian dog | Hyperkinetic episodes with rigidity/hyperextension/twisting movements and postures of extremities as well as head and neck (torticollis), rigidity of paraspinal muscles, resulting in scoliosis and loss of balance/falling and immobility | Unknown/case report | – | Paroxysmal hyperkinetic disorder | |
Episodes are inducible by excitement/stress and exercise | |||||
Duration of episodes: ~15–60 min | |||||
Consciousness is unaltered | |||||
Successful treatment with azetazolamide (0,1 mg/kg) | |||||
Great Dane | Bilateral blepharospasm | Unknown/case report | – | Focal dystonia (blepharospasm) | |
Successful therapy with local application of botulinum toxin A | |||||
Horse | Various breeds | Episodic occurrence of involuntary muscle contractions, mostly in the pelvic region and the hind limbs Episodes are inducible by exercise, stress and excitement Duration of episodes: seconds to minutes | Unknown/hereditary? End-terminal neuroaxonal lesion in the deep cerebellar nuclei | Shivering | Paroxysmal dystonia? |
Episodes of involuntary muscle contractions in the rear body parts but also in the nasolabial region | Unknown/ | Stiff-horse syndrome | Paroxysmal dyskinesia? | ||
Episodes are inducible by exercise and excitement | |||||
Cattle | Various breeds | Progressive consistent contractions of the hindlimb muscles | Unknown possibly autosomal recessive (reduced penetrance?) | Bovine spastic paresis | Limb dystonia |
Belgian Blue, Chianina, Dutch Improved Red and White | Stress/effort and external stimuli provoke enhanced muscle tone, resulting in hyperflexion of all extremities and disability to stand or walk | Mutation in the gene ATP2A1 (encoding for a Ca2+-ATPase [SERCA1] leads to disturbances in the Ca2+-reuptake from the cytosol in the endoplasmic reticulum) | Congenital muscular dystonia type 1 (CMD1) | Brody myopathy? (not dystonia) | |
Belgian Blue | Acoustic or tactile stimuli are leading to episodes of sustained muscle contractions with twisting, repetitive movements and postures | Microdeletion in the gene Glyt2 (SLC6A5) (encoding for a presynaptic transporter of glycine) | Congenital muscular dystonia type 2 (CMD2) | Hyperekplexia/startle disease? (not dystonia) |
aFor references, see text section.