Table 5. Selected Risk Factors and Biomarkers for AF.
| Clinical Risk Factors | References |
|---|---|
| Increasing age | (139) |
| Hypertension | (139) |
| Diabetes mellitus | (139) |
| MI | (139) |
| VHD | (139) |
| HF | (38, 139) |
| Obesity | (140-142) |
| Obstructive sleep apnea | (142) |
| Cardiothoracic surgery | (137) |
| Smoking | (143) |
| Exercise | (144-146) |
| Alcohol use | (147-149) |
| Hyperthyroidism | (150-152) |
| Increased pulse pressure | (153) |
| European ancestry | (154) |
| Family history | (155) |
| Genetic variants | (156-159) |
| Electrocardiographic | |
| LVH | (35) |
| Echocardiographic | |
| LA enlargement | (35, 160) |
| Decreased LV fractional shortening | (35) |
| Increased LV wall thickness | (35) |
| Biomarkers | |
| Increased CRP | (86, 161) |
| Increased BNP | (162, 163) |
AF indicates atrial fibrillation; BNP, B-type natriuretic peptide; CRP, C-reactive protein; HF, heart failure; LA, left atrial; LV, left ventricular; LVH, left ventricular hypertrophy; MI, myocardial infarction; and VHD, valvular heart disease.