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PPARγ and macrophage activation. Proinflammatory macrophages are characterized by M1 activation markers, production of proinflammatory cytokines, and increased recruitment of immune cells. Upon stimulation with PPARγ ligands and/or increases in PPARγ expression, macrophages shift to an alternative M2 phenotype, with decreased proinflammatory actions, increased efferocytosis and phagocytosis, and production of anti-inflammatory cytokines.
