Table 2.

Summary of Prenatal Androgen Effects on Gender Development

	Reviewed in 2011			Confirmed in Recent Studies?
	Effect Size	Evidence		Effect Size	Evidence
		Source	Strength		Source	Strength
Activity Interests & Participation	large	Natural Expt Amniotic T	+++ ++	large	Natural Expt Amniotic T	+++ ---
Gender Identity	small	Natural Expt	+++	small	Natural Expt	+++
Sexual Orientation	moderate	Natural Expt	+++	Natural Expt	---
Spatial Abilities	small-moderate	Natural Expt OS twins	++ +	small-moderate		Natural Expt OS Twins Amniotic T	+++ ++ +
Psychopathology:
“Autistic” Traits	moderate	Natural Expt Amniotic T	+ +	large	Amniotic T	+
Autism Diagnosis				no effect	Natural Expt	+
Substance Use				small	OS Twins	+
Disordered Eating				small-moderate	OS Twins	+

Modified from [4].

Source (of evidence): Natural Expt: Natural experiments (e.g., CAH); Amniotic T: Typical samples with direct measure of testosterone in amniotic fluid; OS Twins: Typical samples of opposite versus same-sex twins

Strength (of evidence), based on number of studies and ability to infer causation about androgen from design (e.g., more weight given to data from natural experiments than twins): + weak; ++ moderate; +++ strong; --- insufficient new evidence