Table 2.
Association with Human Diseases
| Mitochondrial DAMPs | Diseases | Specimen | The levels of DAMPs in diseases. Association with clinical phenotypes | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| mtDNA | Rheumatoid arthritis | Plasma Synovial fluid |
The levels of mtDNA are higher in the patients with RA than in the control subjects. | (58) |
| Urological malignancies | Serum | The levels of mtDNA are higher in the patients with urological malignancies (bladder cancer, renal cell carcinoma, or prostate cancer) than in the healthy subjects. | (39) | |
| Prostate cancer | Plasma | The levels of mtDNA are higher in the patients with prostate cancer than the patients with benign diseases. | (98) | |
| The levels of mtDNA are correlated with hemoglobin count and the level of PSA, a tumor marker for prostate cancer. | ||||
| The cancer patients who have higher levels of mtDNA decrease the survival compared with the cancer patients with lower levels of mtDNA. | ||||
| Ovarian cancer | Plasma | The levels of mtDNA are elevated in patients with epithelial ovarian cancer, but not with benign epithelial ovarian tumor, compared with the healthy control group. | (174) | |
| Breast cancer | Plasma | The levels of mtDNA are lower in the patients with breast cancer than control groups. (The levels of nuclear DNA are higher in the patients.) | (77) | |
| Ewing sarcoma | Serum | The levels of mtDNA are lower in the patients with Ewing sarcoma than in the healthy subjects | (173) | |
| Myocardial infarction (MI) | Plasma | The levels of mtDNA are higher and sustained in patients with MI than with stable angina pectoris. | (9) | |
| The levels of mtDNA are higher in patients with transmural MI than with nontransmural MI. | ||||
| Exposure to haloalkanes | Serum | The levels of mtDNA (both 230 and 79 bp) are higher in the group with exposed haloalkane-based pesticides than the control subjects. | (15) | |
| HIV infection | Plasma | The levels of mtDNA are higher in the HIV-positive patients than the healthy controls and the long-term nonprogressors. | (26) | |
| The levels of mtDNA are correlated with plasma viral load. | ||||
| Patients in ER | Plasma | The levels of mtDNA are higher in the patients with severe sepsis on admission to the ER than the control patients. | (82) | |
| The levels of mtDNA are higher in the nonsurvivors than in the survivors. | ||||
| Patients in ER | Plasma | The levels of mtDNA are negatively associated with organ dysfunction. | (121) | |
| Patients in medical ICU | Plasma | The levels of circulating cell-free mtDNA are associated with disease severity in critically ill patients. | (108) | |
| The medical ICU patients who have higher levels of plasma mtDNA decrease the survival compared with the patients with lower levels of mtDNA. | ||||
| Trauma | Plasma | The levels of mtDNA are higher in the patients with trauma than the control subjects. | (179) | |
| Femur fracture reamings | Plasma | The levels of mtDNA are higher in the patients with femur fracture reamings than control volunteers. | (59) | |
| ACABM | Plasma | The levels of mtDNA are higher in the patients with bacterial meningitis than with aseptic meningitis and the normal volunteers. | (94) | |
| The levels of mtDNA are negatively correlated with the modified Barthel index, a scale to measure performance in activities of daily living. Higher levels of mtDNA are associated with poor outcome in patients with ACABM | ||||
| Acute ischemic stroke | Plasma | The levels of mtDNA are elevated in patients with acute ischemic stroke compared with the control subjects. | (160) | |
| Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest | Plasma | The levels of mtDNA are higher in nonsurvivors than in survivors after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. | (3) | |
| Acute liver failure | Serum | The levels of mtDNA are elevated in patients with acute liver failure and are associated with liver dysfunction marker ALT levels. | (97) | |
| Massive PE | Plasma | Plasma mtDNA concentrations are higher in patients with massive PE than in patients with submassive PE or controls. | (4) | |
| Maintenance hemodialysis | Plasma | The levels of mtDNA are elevated in patients with maintenance hemodialysis compared with healthy subjects. | (18) | |
| Aging | Plasma | MtDNA plasma levels increased gradually after the fifth decade of life and the levels of mtDNA are associated with the levels of proinflammatory cytokines. | (120) | |
| ATP | COPD | BALF | ATP concentration is the highest in the patients with COPD, even after smoking cessation. | (92) |
| ATP concentration is negatively associated with lung function and positively with BALF neutrophil counts. | ||||
| Asthma | BALF | ATP concentration is elevated in the patients with asthma who undergo segmental allergen provocation compared with the control patients. | (65) | |
| Cystic fibrosis | Plasma | ATP concentration is elevated in patients with CF compared with control healthy subjects. | (85) | |
| Sputum, BALF, EBC | ATP concentration is elevated in patients with CF compared with disease control children in BALF, sputum, and EBC. ATP concentration is inversely related to lung function and strongly correlated with neutrophil counts in BALF. | (40) | ||
| IPF | BALF | ATP concentration is elevated in patients with IPF compared with control patients. | (129) | |
| Type 1 diabetes | Plasma | ATP concentration is elevated in patients with type 1 diabetes compared with control healthy subjects. ATP concentration was negatively correlated with coronary flow velocity response after intervention. | (76) | |
| GVHD | Ascites | ATP concentration is elevated in patients with GVHD compared with patients without GVHD who have HCT or patients who do not have HCT. | (165) | |
| PAACG | Aqueous humor | ATP concentration is elevated in patients with PAACG associated with intraocular pressure. | (89, 180) | |
| ATP concentration is associated with intraocular pressure. | ||||
| AMD with subretinal hemorrhage | Vitreous | ATP concentration is elevated in patients with AMD compared with control subjects. | (109) | |
| Primary pulmonary hypertension | Red blood cells | ATP release is impaired in red blood cells of patients with primary pulmonary hypertension. | (152) | |
| Succinate | Metabolic acidosis | Plasma | The levels of succinate are elevated in patients with metabolic acidosis, including diabetic ketoacidosis and lactic acidosis, compared with control subjects. | (45) |
| Acute coronary syndrome | Plasma | The levels of succinate are elevated in patients with non-ST elevation acute coronary syndrome from day 0 (after the diagnosis) to 6 months compared with the healthy control group. | (159) | |
| Cowden syndrome | Plasma | The levels of succinate are elevated in individuals with PTEN, SDHB, and SDHD mutation. | (62) | |
| Exercise | Plasma | The levels of succinate are elevated after exercises, including exercise treadmill testing, bicycle ergometer, and marathon. | (88) | |
| Exercise in patients with type 1 diabetes | Serum | The levels of succinate are elevated after an intense exercise at 80% of VO2 max for 30 min. | (14) | |
| Cardiolipin | Pneumonia | Tracheal aspirates | The levels of cardiolipin are higher in patients with pneumonia than critically ill patients with nonpulmonary illnesses or patients with congestive heart failure. | (127) |
ACABM, adult community-acquired bacterial meningitis; AMD, age-related macular degeneration; ALT, alanine transaminase; CF, cystic fibrosis; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; EBC, exhaled breath condensate; ER, emergency room; ICU, intensive care unit; IPF, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis; HCT, hematopoietic cell transplantation; PAACG, primary acute angle closure glaucoma; PE, pulmonary embolism; PSA, prostate-specific antigen; RA, rheumatoid arthritis; VO2 max, maximal oxygen consumption.