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Closed-loop response of the Kelvin observer (black) and a proportional-integral controller (red) to steps in Ulcpd and K. Both controllers incorporate the separately measured static gain, K, and are tuned for similar step responses at high K. Noise in K and at the inputs is artificial white noise lowpass-filtered with τfcut = 1 and the filter order n = 4, corresponding to the simulated system.
