Table 2.
The in vitro and in vivo effect on anti-diabetic and underlying mechanism of anthocyanins
| Strcture of anthocyanins | Plants/dietary source | Specific mechanism of action | Model | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Cyanidin 
|
Grapes, bilberry, blackberry, blueberry, cherry, cranberry, elderberry, hawthorn, logan berry, acai berry and raspberry. | ↑ pAMPK, pACC signaling and improve insulin signaling (pAkt, pFOXO-1). | HFD-induced obesity rats | Park 2015 [206] |
| ↑ PGC-1α, SIRT1 and UCP-3 genes. | 3 T3-Ll cells | Matsukawa 2015 [207] | ||
| Lowered fasting glucose and improved insulin sensitivity. | C57BL/6 J obese mice | Guo 2012 [205] | ||
| Decreased c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation and FoXO1. | ||||
| Upregulated the GLUT4 and down-regulation of the inflammatory adipocytokines. | HFD-KK-A(y) mice | Sasaki 2007 [208] | ||
| Suppressed the mRNA levels of enzymes involved in FA and TG synthesis and lowered the SREBP-1 level. | High fat-induced diabetic mice | Tsuda 2003 [209] | ||
| ↓ Glucose, mitochondrial (ROS) | INS-1 cells and STZ-induced diabetic mice | Sun 2012 [210] | ||
Delphinidin 
|
Berries, dark grapes and vegetables such as eggplant, tomato, carrot, purple sweet potato, red cabbage and red onion | ↓ Albumin and HbA1c glycation. | Diabetic rats | Gharib 2013 [212] |
| Cyclooxygenase inhibitor restored the relaxant responses to Ach and SNP. | Diabetic microangiopathy. | Bertuglia 1995 [211] | ||
Pelargonidin 
|
Ficus bengalensis Linn and billberry | ↓ Glucose, TBARS and ↑ SOD | STZ-injected diabetic rats | Mirshekar 2010 [215] |
| Improved retention and recall capability. | STZ-diabetic rats | Mirshekar 2011 [217] |