Table 1.

Examples of coral reef (corals and associated organisms) responses to common stressors found in sewage

Stressor	Response	References
Freshwater	Increased coral mortality (with lowered salinity for >24 h).	32, 33
Dissolved inorganic nutrients (ammonium, nitrite + nitrate, and phosphate)	Increased coral bleaching, increased coral disease prevalence and severity, decreased coral fecundity, algal overgrowth, decreased coral skeletal integrity, decreased coral cover and biodiversity, and increased phytoplankton shading.	30, 47, 50, 51, 54, 55, 57, 70, 107
Endocrine disrupters (e.g., steroidal estrogens)	Reduction in coral egg–sperm bundles, slowed coral growth rates, coral tissue thickening.	95, 103, 105
Pathogens	Source of white pox disease pathogen for corals and associated mortality, and increased pathogenicity in corals.	88–90
Solids	Reduced photosynthesis of coral symbionts, coral species richness, coral growth rates, coral calcification, coral cover, and coral reef accretion rates, and increased coral mortality.	107–112
Heavy metals	Coral mortality, coral bleaching, reduction of basic functions such as respiration and fertilization success; Fe2+ may increase growth of coral disease.	126–128
Toxins	Lethal and sublethal effects on corals—highly variable and dependent on specific toxin. Reduced photosynthesis of coral symbionts, coral bleaching, coral mortality, reduced coral lipid storage, reduced coral fecundity, death of coral symbionts, and decreased coral growth.	133 and references therein