Table 4.
The results of prospective studies on risk factors of low back pain in athletes.
| Risk factor | Number | Study | Association | Sample showing association | Level of evidence | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yes | No | |||||
| Age | 1 | [33] | 0 | 1/1 | Insufficient | |
|
| ||||||
| Body weight | 2 | [21, 28] | + | 2/2 | Strong | |
|
| ||||||
| BMI | 2 | [22, 28] | − | 2/2 | Moderate | |
|
| ||||||
| Height | 2 | [21, 28] | 0 | Strong | ||
|
| ||||||
| Sex | 1 | [21] | 0 | 1/1 | Insufficient | |
|
| ||||||
| Involvement in other sports | 2 | [31, 33] | 0 | 2/2 | Moderate | |
|
| ||||||
| Active year | 1 | [31] | 0 | 1/1 | Insufficient | |
|
| ||||||
| Previous LBP | 3 | [21, 33] | − | 2/3 | 1/3 | Strong |
| [27] | 0 | |||||
|
| ||||||
| Previous back injury | 1 | [31] | − | 1/1 | Insufficient | |
|
| ||||||
| Previous lower extremity injury | 1 | [27] | − | 1/1 | Insufficient | |
|
| ||||||
| Lumbar flexion (decreased ROM) | 3 | [21, 28] | − | 2/3 | 1/3 | Strong |
| [22] | 0 | |||||
|
| ||||||
| Lumbar extension (decreased ROM) | 3 | [21, 28] | − | 2/3 | 1/3 | Strong |
| [22] | 0 | |||||
|
| ||||||
| hip flexor length (tightness) | 3 | [21, 22] | − | 2/3 | 1/3 | Moderate |
| [27] | 0 | |||||
|
| ||||||
| Forward bending | 1 | [21] | + | 1/1 | Insufficient | |
|
| ||||||
| Side bridge endurance test | 1 | [22] | − | 1/1 | Insufficient | |
|
| ||||||
| Lateral flexion of the neck at the dominant side (decreased) | 1 | [31] | − | 1/1 | Insufficient | |
|
| ||||||
| hamstring length (tightness) | 3 | [21, 22, 28] | 0 | 3/3 | Strong | |
|
| ||||||
| Trunk flexor endurance | 2 | [21, 22] | 0 | 2/2 | Moderate | |
|
| ||||||
| Trunk extensor endurance | 2 | [21, 22] | 0 | 2/2 | Moderate | |
|
| ||||||
| trunk extensor strength | 2 | [22, 32] | 0 | 2/2 | Moderate | |
|
| ||||||
| Hip extensor strength | 1 | [32] | 0 | 1/1 | Insufficient | |
|
| ||||||
| Lateral flexion of the neck at the nondominant side (decreased) | 1 | [31] | 0 | 1/1 | Insufficient | |
|
| ||||||
| Rack side et length (normal/extra length) | 1 | [31] | 0 | 1/1 | Insufficient | |
|
| ||||||
| >10° difference between dominant and nondominant total shoulder rotation | 1 | [31] | 0 | 1/1 | Insufficient | |
|
| ||||||
| >10° difference between dominant and nondominant side in flexion of the shoulder joint | 1 | [31] | 0 | 1/1 | Insufficient | |
|
| ||||||
| >10° difference between dominant and nondominant side in extension of the elbow joint | 1 | [31] | 0 | 1/1 | Insufficient | |
|
| ||||||
| >10% difference between forehand and backhand medicine ball tosses | 1 | [31] | 0 | 1/1 | Insufficient | |
+: positive association, −: negative association, and 0: without association.