TABLE 1.
Baseline characteristics by sex and diet group1
| Characteristics | Regular meat eaters | Low meat eaters | Fish eaters | Vegetarians or vegans | All participants |
| Men | |||||
| Participants, n | 5035 | 2911 | 1590 | 5380 | 14,916 |
| Age at recruitment, y | 48.4 ± 14.3 | 47.0 ± 14.8 | 43.0 ± 13.4 | 40.7 ± 14.3 | 44.8 ± 14.7 |
| Smoking | |||||
| Never smoker | 45.9 | 49.2 | 54.3 | 56.6 | 51.3 |
| Former smoker | 34.1 | 33.8 | 30.4 | 30.2 | 32.2 |
| Current smoker (1–9 cigarettes/d) | 3.3 | 4.1 | 4.7 | 4.0 | 3.8 |
| Current smoker (10–19 cigarettes/d) | 4.1 | 3.8 | 3.8 | 3.1 | 3.7 |
| Current smoker (≥20 cigarettes/d) | 6.5 | 4.3 | 2.5 | 3.1 | 4.4 |
| Other current smoker2 | 6.2 | 4.8 | 4.3 | 2.9 | 4.5 |
| BMI3 | |||||
| <20 kg/m2 | 4.3 | 7.3 | 8.6 | 12.3 | 8.2 |
| 20–24.9 kg/m2 | 52.3 | 59.9 | 65.7 | 63.2 | 59.1 |
| ≥25 kg/m2 | 40.4 | 30.0 | 22.6 | 20.9 | 29.4 |
| Unknown | 3.0 | 2.8 | 3.1 | 3.6 | 3.2 |
| Mean, kg/m2 | 24.8 ± 3.3 | 23.9 ± 3.0 | 23.3 ± 3.1 | 23.0 ± 3.1 | 23.8 ± 3.3 |
| Alcohol consumption | |||||
| <1 g/d | 8.4 | 12.9 | 12.4 | 22.2 | 14.7 |
| 1–7 g/d | 28.5 | 30.7 | 27.9 | 29.2 | 29.1 |
| 8–15 g/d | 25.6 | 24.1 | 25.0 | 21.4 | 23.7 |
| ≥16 g/d | 35.7 | 30.7 | 32.3 | 25.2 | 30.6 |
| Unknown | 1.9 | 1.5 | 2.5 | 2.0 | 1.9 |
| Mean, g/d | 16.7 ± 17.7 | 13.9 ± 15.0 | 15.5 ± 17.2 | 12.6 ± 16.7 | 14.5 ± 16.9 |
| Physical activity | |||||
| Low | 64.7 | 57.7 | 53.8 | 55.3 | 58.8 |
| High | 29.0 | 35.4 | 39.1 | 38.9 | 34.9 |
| Unknown | 6.3 | 6.8 | 7.2 | 5.8 | 6.3 |
| Marital status | |||||
| Married or cohabiting | 75.5 | 69.3 | 66.1 | 60.8 | 68.0 |
| Not married or cohabiting | 24.3 | 30.4 | 33.6 | 38.9 | 31.8 |
| Unknown | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 |
| Regularly take nutritional supplements | |||||
| No | 65.9 | 57.6 | 53.5 | 58.9 | 60.4 |
| Yes | 32.6 | 40.4 | 44.4 | 39.5 | 37.9 |
| Unknown | 1.5 | 2.0 | 2.1 | 1.5 | 1.7 |
| Prior diabetes | |||||
| No | 94.6 | 95.2 | 95.6 | 96.1 | 95.4 |
| Yes | 2.3 | 1.5 | 1.1 | 1.0 | 1.6 |
| Unknown | 3.1 | 3.4 | 3.3 | 2.8 | 3.1 |
| Prior high blood pressure | |||||
| No | 85.7 | 87.5 | 89.6 | 92.0 | 88.7 |
| Yes | 12.0 | 9.7 | 8.1 | 5.5 | 8.8 |
| Unknown | 2.3 | 2.8 | 2.3 | 2.5 | 2.5 |
| Receiving long-term medical treatment | |||||
| No | 74.9 | 79.3 | 81.8 | 84.4 | 79.9 |
| Yes | 23.9 | 19.0 | 16.6 | 14.7 | 18.8 |
| Unknown | 1.2 | 1.7 | 1.6 | 0.9 | 1.2 |
| Food/nutrient intake4 | |||||
| Energy, MJ/d | 9.66 ± 2.40 | 8.48 ± 2.42 | 8.92 ± 2.42 | 8.66 ± 2.41 | 8.99 ± 2.46 |
| Protein, % energy | 16.5 ± 2.7 | 15.0 ± 2.5 | 13.9 ± 2.2 | 13.0 ± 2.0 | 14.6 ± 2.8 |
| Animal protein, % energy | 11.0 ± 2.7 | 8.5 ± 2.6 | 6.8 ± 2.3 | 5.2 ± 2.1 | 7.9 ± 3.5 |
| Plant protein, % energy | 5.5 ± 1.1 | 6.5 ± 1.3 | 7.0 ± 1.4 | 7.8 ± 1.7 | 6.7 ± 1.7 |
| Carbohydrate, % energy | 45.3 ± 6.1 | 49.2 ± 6.2 | 49.6 ± 6.5 | 51.8 ± 7.0 | 48.9 ± 7.1 |
| Total fat, % energy | 32.9 ± 5.4 | 30.8 ± 5.9 | 31.2 ± 6.0 | 30.6 ± 6.4 | 31.5 ± 6.0 |
| Saturated fat, % energy | 12.4 ± 3.1 | 11.1 ± 3.3 | 10.7 ± 3.3 | 10.0 ± 3.6 | 11.1 ± 3.5 |
| Dietary fiber,5 g/d | 18.0 ± 6.4 | 19.3 ± 7.6 | 21.5 ± 7.5 | 22.9 ± 8.0 | 20.4 ± 7.6 |
| Total meat, g/d | 115 ± 47 | 36 ± 18 | — | — | 45 ± 58 |
| Red meat, g/d | 84 ± 43 | 23 ± 13 | — | — | 32 ± 45 |
| Poultry meat, g/d | 31 ± 23 | 13 ± 13 | — | — | 13 ± 20 |
| Total processed meat, g/d | 31 ± 21 | 9 ± 6 | — | — | 12 ± 18 |
| Total fish, g/d | 42 ± 28 | 39 ± 33 | 41 ± 35 | — | 26 ± 31 |
| Oily fish, g/d | 13 ± 17 | 15 ± 21 | 16 ± 21 | — | 9 ± 16 |
| Fresh fruit, g/d | 200 ± 164 | 252 ± 219 | 248 ± 202 | 256 ± 227 | 236 ± 205 |
| Fresh vegetables, g/d | 220 ± 115 | 229 ± 133 | 263 ± 138 | 275 ± 146 | 247 ± 135 |
| Women | |||||
| Participants, n | 13,396 | 10,128 | 6926 | 14,944 | 45,394 |
| Age at recruitment, y | 47.7 ± 12.8 | 46.3 ± 13.7 | 40.7 ± 13.0 | 37.8 ± 13.7 | 43.0 ± 14.0 |
| Smoking | |||||
| Never smoker | 59.8 | 61.0 | 60.4 | 64.5 | 61.7 |
| Former smoker | 26.5 | 27.5 | 29.4 | 25.1 | 26.7 |
| Current smoker (1–9 cigarettes/d) | 3.6 | 4.2 | 4.4 | 4.5 | 4.2 |
| Current smoker (10–19 cigarettes/d) | 4.8 | 3.7 | 3.2 | 3.3 | 3.8 |
| Current smoker (≥20 cigarettes/d) | 4.6 | 2.8 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 2.9 |
| Other current smoker2 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.7 |
| BMI3 | |||||
| <20 kg/m2 | 8.3 | 13.2 | 17.4 | 20.8 | 14.9 |
| 20–24.9 kg/m2 | 52.7 | 59.1 | 61.4 | 59.2 | 57.6 |
| ≥25 kg/m2 | 36.2 | 24.9 | 18.0 | 16.3 | 24.3 |
| Unknown | 2.8 | 2.9 | 3.1 | 3.7 | 3.2 |
| Mean, kg/m2 | 24.7 ± 4.4 | 23.4 ± 3.7 | 22.7 ± 3.4 | 22.5 ± 3.4 | 23.4 ± 3.9 |
| Alcohol consumption | |||||
| <1 g/d | 16.5 | 18.6 | 16.8 | 24.4 | 19.6 |
| 1–7 g/d | 46.7 | 45.7 | 42.9 | 42.0 | 44.4 |
| 8–15 g/d | 22.6 | 23.0 | 24.7 | 21.2 | 22.5 |
| ≥16 g/d | 11.6 | 11.2 | 13.7 | 11.0 | 11.6 |
| Unknown | 2.7 | 1.4 | 1.9 | 1.4 | 1.9 |
| Mean, g/d | 7.7 ± 9.4 | 7.5 ± 9.3 | 8.4 ± 10.1 | 7.2 ± 9.6 | 7.6 ± 9.6 |
| Physical activity | |||||
| Low | 68.0 | 62.0 | 57.1 | 59.9 | 62.4 |
| High | 20.9 | 26.6 | 32.2 | 31.1 | 27.3 |
| Unknown | 11.1 | 11.3 | 10.7 | 9.0 | 10.4 |
| Marital status | |||||
| Married or cohabiting | 76.1 | 63.0 | 62.5 | 58.3 | 65.2 |
| Not married or cohabiting | 23.8 | 36.8 | 37.3 | 41.3 | 34.5 |
| Unknown | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.2 |
| Regularly take nutritional supplements | |||||
| No | 48.3 | 38.2 | 34.4 | 42.8 | 42.1 |
| Yes | 49.7 | 59.5 | 63.3 | 55.3 | 55.8 |
| Unknown | 1.9 | 2.3 | 2.3 | 1.9 | 2.1 |
| Prior diabetes | |||||
| No | 82.3 | 89.1 | 95.0 | 94.8 | 89.8 |
| Yes | 1.5 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 1.0 |
| Unknown | 16.3 | 9.9 | 4.2 | 4.7 | 9.2 |
| Prior high blood pressure | |||||
| No | 73.0 | 80.4 | 88.8 | 89.6 | 82.5 |
| Yes | 13.1 | 11.1 | 7.5 | 6.2 | 9.5 |
| Unknown | 13.9 | 8.5 | 3.8 | 4.2 | 7.9 |
| Receiving long-term medical treatment | |||||
| No | 61.3 | 69.6 | 77.3 | 80.9 | 72.0 |
| Yes | 25.6 | 24.5 | 21.3 | 17.8 | 22.1 |
| Unknown | 13.1 | 5.9 | 1.5 | 1.4 | 5.9 |
| Parity | |||||
| Nulliparous | 22.0 | 34.1 | 47.1 | 57.1 | 40.1 |
| Parous | 77.2 | 64.7 | 51.8 | 41.5 | 58.8 |
| Unknown | 0.8 | 1.2 | 1.1 | 1.4 | 1.1 |
| Ever used oral contraceptives | |||||
| No | 29.8 | 28.9 | 21.1 | 24.6 | 26.6 |
| Yes | 68.8 | 70.1 | 78.5 | 74.8 | 72.5 |
| Unknown | 1.3 | 1.0 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.9 |
| Ever used hormone therapy | |||||
| No | 63.8 | 69.0 | 80.9 | 78.7 | 72.5 |
| Yes | 26.0 | 20.0 | 10.8 | 6.7 | 16.0 |
| Unknown | 10.2 | 10.9 | 8.2 | 14.6 | 11.5 |
| Food/nutrient intake4 | |||||
| Energy, MJ/d | 8.45 ± 2.07 | 7.44 ± 2.01 | 7.73 ± 2.10 | 7.54 ± 2.10 | 7.82 ± 2.11 |
| Protein, % energy | 18.2 ± 2.9 | 16.2 ± 2.7 | 14.8 ± 2.3 | 13.8 ± 2.1 | 15.8 ± 3.1 |
| Animal protein, % energy | 12.3 ± 2.9 | 9.5 ± 2.7 | 7.6 ± 2.4 | 5.9 ± 2.2 | 8.9 ± 3.7 |
| Plant protein, % energy | 5.8 ± 1.1 | 6.6 ± 1.3 | 7.2 ± 1.4 | 7.8 ± 1.7 | 6.9 ± 1.6 |
| Carbohydrate, % energy | 46.8 ± 5.6 | 50.3 ± 6.2 | 51.2 ± 6.4 | 53.2 ± 6.7 | 50.3 ± 6.7 |
| Total fat, % energy | 32.3 ± 5.6 | 30.5 ± 6.2 | 30.7 ± 6.3 | 30.1 ± 6.7 | 30.9 ± 6.3 |
| Saturated fat, % energy | 11.9 ± 3.1 | 10.9 ± 3.4 | 10.6 ± 3.3 | 10.2 ± 3.5 | 10.9 ± 3.4 |
| Dietary fiber,5 g/d | 18.4 ± 6.3 | 19.2 ± 7.2 | 21.1 ± 7.4 | 21.8 ± 8.1 | 20.1 ± 7.4 |
| Total meat, g/d | 106 ± 40 | 35 ± 18 | — | — | 40 ± 51 |
| Red meat, g/d | 70 ± 36 | 21 ± 12 | — | — | 26 ± 36 |
| Poultry meat, g/d | 36 ± 23 | 15 ± 14 | — | — | 14 ± 21 |
| Total processed meat, g/d | 24 ± 16 | 8 ± 5 | — | — | 9 ± 14 |
| Total fish, g/d | 44 ± 28 | 41 ± 30 | 38 ± 33 | — | 28 ± 31 |
| Oily fish, g/d | 15 ± 17 | 16 ± 17 | 16 ± 19 | — | 11 ± 16 |
| Fresh fruit, g/d | 257 ± 189 | 298 ± 231 | 299 ± 230 | 293 ± 244 | 285 ± 224 |
| Fresh vegetables, g/d | 256 ± 125 | 262 ± 146 | 292 ± 151 | 301 ± 169 | 277 ± 150 |
1
Values are means ± SDs or percentages. Persons who participated in both the Oxford Vegetarian Study and EPIC-Oxford are grouped according to their characteristics at recruitment to EPIC-Oxford. EPIC-Oxford, European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition–Oxford.
2
Includes pipe or cigar smokers and current smokers of an unknown number of cigarettes per day.
3
Known for 14,441 men and 43,951 women.
4
In 11,625 men and 39,936 women in the EPIC-Oxford study with reliable nutrient intake data.
5
As a nonstarch polysaccharide.