Figure 2. GSLs and mechanisms of cell death.

Schematic summary of predominant pathways of cell death caused by GSLs. GSLs induce apoptosis or necroptosis via interaction with mitochondria and activation of RIPK3, respectively. In addition, ceramide can induce ER stress and autophagy, further contributing to cell death. Besides the activation of these cell death pathways, some GSLs such as ganglioside GD3 inactivate survival pathways dependent on NF-κB activation.