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. 2015 Oct 27;2(12):1071–1084. doi: 10.1002/acn3.260

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© 2015 The Authors. Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc on behalf of American Neurological Association.

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution‐NonCommercial‐NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non‐commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.

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Pioglitazone treatment increases expression of the M2 surface marker CD163 on MS patient macrophages. (A) Light micrographs of M1 and M2 monocyte‐derived macrophages. M1 macrophages display a flattened, amoeboid phenotype with some cells elongated upon pioglitazone treatment (arrows). M2‐polarized macrophages display a bipolar appearance. (B) There is no change in CD163 expression in CD11b⁺ M1‐polarized, myelin‐phagocytosing macrophages compared to resting cells after treatment with 1 μmol/L pioglitazone. (C) M2, pioglitazone‐treated macrophages display increased CD163 expression upon myelin debris phagocytosis compared to HV macrophages, indicating further anti‐inflammatory polarization. Adjusted P‐values for pairwise comparisons in a adjusted P‐values for pairwise comparisons in a two‐way repeated measures ANOVA with Tukey's test. Mean ± SEM, *P < 0.05, n = 10/group. MS, multiple sclerosis; HV, healthy volunteer; ANOVA, analysis of variance.