Table 2.

Different approaches to KM and KS

Knowledge management

Published data: optimization of search engines, curation   and cleaning, harmonization

Unpublished data: detection, registration, cleaning

Deposition of raw datasets in public: documentation,   access control, ease of use, credit, independence

Live stream information

Knowledge synthesis

Same-level of information

Systematic reviews of published information

Meta-analyses of published information

Meta-analyses including also retrieved unpublished    data

Field synopses of many meta-analyses

Collaborative meta-analyses of previously collected    individual-level data

Collaborative meta-analyses of prospectively collected data from    existing studies

Prospective consortia and meta-analyses thereof

Multiple levels of information

Cross-design synthesis and multilevel evidence    appraisals

Modeling with real or simulated data

Meta-research (research on research)