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Lipolysis release TGF-β1 and activate phosphorylation of Smad2 and translocation of Smad4 to nucleus. TG-β1 also activate non-Smad signaling pathways ATF3-JNK transcription factor networks. Both Smad and ATF3 further induced pro-inflammatory cytokines and apoptosis which can be inhibited by TGF-β receptor inhibitor, ALK.
