Table 3.

Prospective data examining the link between dairy consumption and fracture risk

Study population	Study findings	Reference
Meta-analysis	Meta-analysis of 6 prospective cohort studies (n = 39,563 men and women), with 152,000 person-years of follow-up, found that low dairy intake (less than 1 glass of milk daily) was not associated with a significantly increased risk of fracture (any fracture, osteoporotic fracture or hip fracture)	[139]
Meta-analysis	Meta-analysis of 7 prospective cohort studies (195,102 women and 75,149 men, middle aged or older) found that in women there was no association between total milk intake and hip fracture risk, whereas men had a 9 % reduction in relative risk of fracture per daily glass of milk	[73]
Health Professionals Follow-up Study	Prospective cohort study of 43,063 men (40–75 years of age at baseline) with 8-year follow-up concluded that there was no relation between dairy calcium intake and forearm fracture. There was a non-significant trend to reduction of hip fractures with the highest dairy calcium intakes	[140]
Study of Osteoporotic Fractures (SOF Study)	Prospective cohort study of 9704 women (aged ≥ 65 years) with mean 6.6-year follow-up concluded that there was no association between milk intake and the risk of any of the fractures studied. The exception was ankle fractures, which significantly decreased with increasing milk intake	[141]
National Health Screening, Norway	Prospective cohort study of 19,752 women and 20,035 men (middle aged) with mean 11.4-year follow-up found an increased risk of hip fracture for people with a diet that was high in (non-dairy animal) protein and low in milk intake (up to 1 glass of milk per day)	[142]
Japanese Adult Health Study	Prospective cohort study of 4573 people (mean age 58.5 years) found that low milk intake was marginally associated with an increased risk of hip fracture	[143]
Swedish Mammography Cohort	Prospective cohort study of 60,689 women (aged 40–74 years at baseline) found that there was no dose–response relationship between dietary calcium and risk of osteoporotic fracture	[77]
Swedish Mammography cohort and Cohort of Swedish Men	Analysis of two prospective cohort studies, comprising 61,433 women and 45,339 men (aged 39–74 years at baseline), with mean follow-up of 20.1 years found that higher mortality (men and women) and increased fracture (women) were associated with high milk intake. However, high intake of cheese or fermented milk products was associated with lower mortality and fracture rates in women	[78]
Framingham Offspring	Prospective cohort of 3212 men and women (aged 26–85 at baseline) with 12 years of follow-up found a weak protective trend of yogurt (but not other dairies) on risk of hip fracture	[75]
Framingham Original Cohort	Prospective cohort study of 830 men and women with mean 11.6-year follow-up concluded that greater intakes of milk and milk  +  yogurt may lower risk for hip fracture in older adults	[76]
Nurses’ Health Study	Prospective cohort study of 77,761 women (aged 34–59 years at baseline) with 12 years of follow-up concluded that higher milk consumption did not protect against fracture (hip or forearm)	[74]
Nurses’ Health Study	Prospective cohort study of 72,337 postmenopausal women with 18 years of follow-up found that that milk did not reduce hip fracture risk	[2]
Nurses’ Health Study and Health Professionals Follow-up Study	Prospective cohort study of 35,349 men (aged 40–75 years at baseline) and 61,578 women (30–55 years of age at baseline) with 22-year follow-up found that milk consumption as a teenager was not associated with hip fractures in adulthood	[144]
French Three-City Study	Prospective cohort study of 1482 individuals (aged ≥67 years) with an 8-year follow-up found that low intake of dairy products was associated with an increased risk of wrist fractures	[145]
European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and nutrition study (EPIC)	Prospective study of 10,538 men and 18,584 women (aged ≥60 years), followed up for a median of 8 years, found that dairy consumption did not influence the risk of hip fracture	[146]
Spanish elderly cohort	Prospective cohort study of 5201 women (aged ≥65 years) with 3-year follow-up found that dairy calcium intake less than 250 mg/day was associated with the risk of non-spinal fracture	[147]
European Prospective Osteoporosis Study (EPOS)	Prospective study of 3173 men and 3402 women (aged 50–79 years) with a mean 3.8-year follow-up found that vertebral fracture was not associated with milk consumption	[148]
NHANES I Epidemiologic Follow-Up Study cohort	Prospective cohort study of 4342 men and postmenopausal women (aged 50–74 at baseline), with up to 16 years of follow-up, concluded that dietary calcium may reduce the risk of hip fracture in late menopausal women	[149]