Table 1. Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) seroprevalence in domestic animals.
| Animal | Country (Region) of Specimen Origin | Seroprevalence | Assay | Reference | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | % | ||||
| Buffalo | Egypt | 47 | 0 | CF | [38] |
| Egypt (central) | 153 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [39] | |
| India | 2 | 0 | AGDP | [18] | |
| India (Jammu and Kashmir) | 23 | 0 | CF | [40] | |
| India (Jammu and Kashmir) | 14 | 0 | AGDP | [40] | |
| India | 3 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [41] | |
| India (Maharashtra, Rajasthan) | 46 | 2.2 | IgG ELISA | [42] | |
| India (Ahmadabad) | 123 | 19.5 | IgG ELISA | [42] | |
| Pakistan | 22 | 4.5 | CF | [43] | |
| Camels | China (Tarim, Junggar, and Turpan-Hami Basins) | 10 | 40 | RPHI | [44]* |
| Egypt | 34 | 8.8 | CF | [38] | |
| Egypt (central) | 10 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [39] | |
| India (Jammu and Kashmir) | 3 | 0 | CF | [40] | |
| India (Jammu and Kashmir) | 3 | 0 | AGDP | [40] | |
| Iran | 99 | 19.1 | AGDP | [45] | |
| Iran | 157 | 0 | AGDP | [9] in [6] | |
| Iraq | 99 | 23.2 | CF | [35] | |
| Kenya | 499 | 26 | AGDP, IFA | [20] | |
| Niger | 353 | 13.6 | IgG ELISA | [21] | |
| Oman | 109 | 16 | IgG ELISA | [46] | |
| Pakistan | 1 | 100 | IgG ELISA | [47] | |
| Russia (Astrakhan Oblast) | NR | 1.4 | AGDP | [48] in [6] | |
| Sudan | 3802 | 12 | AGDP, IFA | [20] | |
| Sudan | 13 | 7.7 | IgG ELISA | [47] | |
| United Arab Emirates | 80 | 6.3 | IgG ELISA | [47] | |
| Cattle | Afghanistan | 230 | 5.6 | AGDP | [18,49] |
| Afghanistan (Engil District) | 92 | 79.1 | IgG ELISA | [34] | |
| Albania | 14 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [50] | |
| Albania (ten regions surveyed) | 337 | 4.74 | IgG ELISA | [51] | |
| Albania (Berat) | 50 | 4 | IgG ELISA | [52] | |
| Albania (Gjirokastra) | 50 | 2.1 | IgG ELISA | [53] | |
| Albania (Kolonje) | 54 | 7.4 | IgG ELISA | [52] | |
| Albania (Kukes) | 11 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [53] | |
| Albania (Rreshen) | 40 | 2.6 | IgG ELISA | [53] | |
| Armenia | 1373 | 4.2 | AGDP | [54] | |
| Azerbaijan (Sabirabad and Saatly) | 651 | 16.2 | AGDP | [55] | |
| Azerbaijan (Sal’yany) | 142 | 11.9 | AGDP | [55] | |
| Azerbaijan (Pushkino) | 38 | 10.1 | AGDP | [55] | |
| Azerbaijan (Apsheron) | 102 | 11.0 | AGDP | [55] | |
| Azerbaijan (Divichin) | 161 | 3.1 | AGDP | [55] | |
| Azerbaijan (Lenkoran’) | 238 | 3.8 | AGDP | [55] | |
| Azerbaijan (Sabirabad) | 454 | 4.2 | AGDP | [55] | |
| Azerbaijan (Saatly) | 424 | 4.7 | AGDP | [55] | |
| Bulgaria | 1756 | 33.2 | AGDP | [56] | |
| Bulgaria (Municipality of Aytos) | 127 | 71 | IgG ELISA | [27] | |
| Bulgaria | 1775 | 7.89 | IFA | [22] | |
| Egypt | 43 | 0 | CF | [38] | |
| Egypt | 200 | 0 | AGDP, IFA | [20] | |
| Egypt (central) | 161 | 0.6 | IgG ELISA | [39] | |
| Germany | 78 | 0 | RPHI | [57] | |
| Hungary | 687 | 0.9 | AGDP | [58] | |
| Hungary (Hajdú-Bihar) | 161 | 0 | AGDP | [59] | |
| India | 22 | 0 | AGDP | [15] | |
| India | 25 | 0 | AGDP | [18] | |
| India | 12 | 0 | AGDP | [18] | |
| India | 711 | 12.1 | IgG ELISA | [60] | |
| India | 32 | 43.8 | IgG ELISA | [41] | |
| India (northern West Bengal) | 5 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [42] | |
| India (Ahmadabad) | 74 | 4.1 | IgG ELISA | [42] | |
| India (Jammu and Kashmir) | 66 | 0 | CF | [40] | |
| India (Jammu and Kashmir) | 55 | 0 | AGDP | [40] | |
| Iran | 100 | 19 | AGDP | [45] | |
| Iran | 130 | 18 | AGDP | [9] | |
| Iran | 876 | 5.9 | ELISA | [61] | |
| Iran (Ardabil Province) | 10 | 30 | IgG ELISA | [62] | |
| Iran (Isfahan Province) | 15 | 20 | IgG ELISA | [63] | |
| Iran | 1091 | 25.0 | IgG ELISA | [64] | |
| Iraq | 411 | 29.3 | CF | [35] | |
| Iraq (Basrah, southern Iraq) | 48 | 37 | IgG ELISA | [65] | |
| Ireland | 54 | 1.9 | RPHI | [57] | |
| Italy | 50 | 0 | RPHI | [57] | |
| Kazakhstan | 842 | 0.7 | AGDP | [66] | |
| Kenya/Uganda | 93 | 76.3 | AGDP | [45] | |
| Kosovo | 353 | 18.4 | IgG ELISA | [67] | |
| Niger | 1201 | 46 | IgG ELISA | [21] | |
| Nigeria | 1164 | 25.7 | AGDP | [68] | |
| Oman | 27 | 4 | IgG ELISA | [46] | |
| Pakistan | 45 | 2.2 | CF | [43] | |
| Pakistan | 1 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [47] | |
| Pamirs | 189 | 0 | AGDP | [36] | |
| Republic of Macedonia | 158 | 14.6 | IgG ELISA | [24] | |
| Russia (Astrakhan Oblast) | NR | 5.1 | CF, AGDP | [69] | |
| Russia (Rostov Oblast) | 430 | 23.0 | AGDP | [70] | |
| Russia (Rostov Oblast) | 355 | 2.8 | AGDP | [71] | |
| Russia (Rostov Oblast) | 2155 | 0.5–17.0 | AGDP | [72] | |
| Senegal | 1269 | 6.1 | AGDP | [73] | |
| Somalia | 16 | 6.3 | IgG ELISA | [47] | |
| South Africa | 8667 | 28 | RPHI | [37] | |
| South Africa | 6128 | 26.5 | RPHI | [74] | |
| Sudan (North Kurdufan State) | 299 | 7.0 | IgG ELISA | [75] | |
| Sudan (East Darfur State) | 282 | 19.14 | IgG ELISA | [26] | |
| Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR, northern) | 184 | 0 | AGDP | [36] | |
| Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR) | 1585 | 1.1 | AGDP | [36] | |
| Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR) | 775 | 1.1 | AGDP | [76] | |
| Turkmenistan (FRM Turkmen SSR, Ashkhada region) | 199 | 3.5 | AGDP | [32] | |
| Turkmenistan (FRM Turkmen SSR, Geok-Tepe region) | 29 | 31 | AGDP | [32] | |
| Tanzania (central zone: Mpwapwa) | 166 | 0.6 | AGDP | [6] | |
| Tanzania (northern zone: Longido, Monduli, Tengeru) | 256 | 7.4 | AGDP | [6] | |
| Tanzania (Sukumaland) | 209 | 4.8 | AGDP | [6] | |
| Tanzania (Lake Victoria coastal region) | 417 | 6.3 | AGDP | [6] | |
| Turkey (Marmara region) | 201 | 13 | IgG ELISA | [10] | |
| The Netherlands | 7 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [47] | |
| Uganda | 104 | 36.5 | AGDP | [77] | |
| United Arab Emirates | 34 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [47] | |
| Zimbabwe | 763 | 45 | RPHI | [37] | |
| Chickens | Kosovo | 8 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [67] |
| Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR) | 136 | 0 | CF, AGDP | [76] | |
| Chickens/ducks† | Kazakhstan | 428 | 0.2 | AGDP | [66] |
| Dogs | South Africa, Zimbabwe | 1978 | 6 | RPHI | [13] |
| Donkeys | Azerbaijan (Sal’yany) | 69 | 18.8 | AGDP | [55] |
| Bulgaria | 103 | 17.4 | AGDP | [56] | |
| Bulgaria (Municipality of Aytos) | 8 | 50 | IgG ELISA | [27] | |
| India (Jammu and Kashmir) | 6 | 0 | CF | [40] | |
| India (Jammu and Kashmir) | 6 | 0 | AGDP | [40] | |
| Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR) | 38 | 39.5 | AGDP | [36] | |
| Ducks | Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR) | 44 | 0 | CF, AGDP | [76] |
| Goats | Afghanistan | 233 | 9 | AGDP | [18,49] |
| Albania | 10 | 20 | IgG ELISA | [50] | |
| Bulgaria | 411 | 62.3 | AGDP | [56] | |
| Bulgaria (Municipality of Aytos) | 15 | 60 | IgG ELISA | [27] | |
| India | 1 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [47] | |
| India | 117 | 9.4 | AGDP | [15] | |
| India | 45 | 40 | AGDP | [15] | |
| India | 186 | 16.1 | AGDP | [18] | |
| India | 279 | 41.2 | IgG ELISA | [60] | |
| India | 28 | 46.4 | IgG ELISA | [41] | |
| India (Maharashtra, northern West Bengal, Rajasthan) | 146 | 2.1 | IgG ELISA | [42] | |
| India (Ahmadabad) | 76 | 30.3 | IgG ELISA | [42] | |
| India (Jammu and Kashmir) | 75 | 0 | CF | [40] | |
| India (Jammu and Kashmir) | 35 | 0 | AGDP | [40] | |
| Iran | 135 | 36 | AGDP | [9] | |
| Iran | 5 | 40 | IgG ELISA | [47] | |
| Iran (Ardabil Province) | 3 | 33.3 | IgG ELISA | [62] | |
| Iran (Khorasan Province) | 150 | 46 | NR | In [63] | |
| Iran (Isfahan Province) | 21 | 9.5 | IgG ELISA | [63] | |
| Iran | 987 | 24.8 | IgG ELISA | [64] | |
| Iraq | 562 | 49.6 | CF | [35] | |
| Kosovo | 10 | 10 | IgG ELISA | [67] | |
| Mauritania | 27 | 11.1 | IgG ELISA | [78] | |
| Mauritania | 27 | 0 | IgM ELISA | [78] | |
| Niger | 224 | 4.9 | IgG ELISA | [21] | |
| Oman | 146 | 14 | IgG ELISA | [46] | |
| Pakistan | 48 | 0 | CF | [43] | |
| Pakistan | 1 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [47] | |
| Somalia | 14 | 21.4 | IgG ELISA | [47] | |
| Sudan | 356 | 3.9 | RPHI | [57] | |
| Turkey | 76 | 0 | RPHI | [57] | |
| Turkey (Marmara region) | 147 | 66.0 | IgG ELISA | [10] | |
| United Arab Emirates | 21 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [47] | |
| Goats/sheep† | Iran | 201 | 45 | AGDP | [45] |
| Kazakhstan | 832 | 0.4 | AGDP | [66] | |
| Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR, central) | 107 | 0.9 | AGDP | [36] | |
| Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR) | 326 | 1.5 | AGDP | [76] | |
| Turkmenistan (FRM Turkmen SSR) | 663 | 11.3 | AGDP | [32] | |
| Horses | Bulgaria | 536 | 39 | AGDP | [56] |
| Hungary (Hajdú-Bihar) | 8 | 0 | AGDP | [59] | |
| India | 282 | 1.1 | AGDP | [18] | |
| India (Jammu and Kashmir) | 16 | 0 | CF | [40] | |
| India (Jammu and Kashmir) | 15 | 0 | AGDP | [40] | |
| Iraq | 252 | 58.8 | CF | [35] | |
| Russia (Astrakhan Oblast) | NR | 3.1 | CF, AGDP | [69] | |
| Russia (Rostov Oblast) | NR | Pos | AGDP | [70] | |
| Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR) | 71 | 2.8 | AGDP | [76] | |
| Misc. small ruminants/livestock† | Iran (Isfahan Province) | NR | 56 | NR | In [63] |
| Kosovo (excluding sheep) | NR | 14 | IgG ELISA | [79] | |
| Niger | 418 | 10.3 | IgG ELISA | [21] | |
| Senegal | 1269 | 6.1 | AGDP | [73] | |
| Misc. domestic animals† | India | 40 | 2.5 | AGDP | [18] |
| India | 139 | 7.9 | AGDP | [18] | |
| Mules | India (Jammu and Kashmir) | 64 | 0 | CF | [40] |
| India (Jammu and Kashmir) | 41 | 0 | AGDP | [40] | |
| Ostriches | Iran | 5 | 20 | IgG ELISA | [80] |
| South Africa | 92 | 23.9 | RPHI | [17] | |
| Pigs | Egypt | 46 | 0 | CF | [38] |
| India (Maharashtra) | 25 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [42] | |
| Russia (Rostov Oblast) | 151 | 0 | AGDP | [72] | |
| Sheep | Afghanistan (Engil District) | 40 | 75.0 | IgG ELISA | [34] |
| Azerbaijan (Sabirabad and Saatly) | 91 | 16.2 | AGDP | [55] | |
| Azerbaijan (Pushkino) | 89 | 6.7 | AGDP | [55] | |
| Australia | 30 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [47] | |
| Bulgaria | 1190 | 32.9 | AGDP | [56] | |
| Bulgaria (Municipality of Aytos) | 242 | 74 | IgG ELISA | [27] | |
| China (Tarim, Junggar, and Turpan-Hami basins) | 3640 | 12.6 | RPHI | [44]* | |
| Egypt | 52 | 23.1 | CF | [38] | |
| Egypt | 400 | 0 | AGDP, IFA | [20] | |
| Egypt (central) | 174 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [39] | |
| Greece (Kastoria) | 40 | 25.0 | IgG ELISA | [81] | |
| Hungary | 48 | 31.3 | AGDP | [58] | |
| India | 13 | 7.7 | AGDP | [15] | |
| India | 136 | 0 | AGDP | [18] | |
| India | 149 | 0.7 | AGDP | [18] | |
| India | 236 | 32.6 | IgG ELISA | [60] | |
| India | 19 | 47.4 | IgG ELISA | [41] | |
| India (Maharashtra, Rajasthan) | 17 | 35.3 | IgG ELISA | [42] | |
| India (Ahmadabad) | 32 | 50 | IgG ELISA | [42] | |
| India (Jammu and Kashmir) | 38 | 0 | CF | [40] | |
| India (Jammu and Kashmir) | 12 | 0 | AGDP | [40] | |
| Iran | 728 | 38 | AGDP | [9] | |
| Iran | 2 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [47] | |
| Iran (Ardabil Province) | 43 | 41.9 | IgG ELISA | [62] | |
| Iran (Mazandaran Province) | 270 | 3.7 | IgG ELISA | [82] | |
| Iran (Khorasan Province) | 298 | 77.5 | NR | In [63] | |
| Iran (Isfahan Province) | 286 | 12.6 | IgG ELISA | [63] | |
| Iran | 2447 | 58.7 | IgG ELISA | [64] | |
| Iraq | 769 | 57.6 | CF | [35] | |
| Iraq (Basrah, southern Iraq) | 74 | 20 | IgG ELISA | [65] | |
| Kosovo | 30 | 10 | IgG ELISA | [67] | |
| Kosovo | NR | 32.6 | IgG ELISA | [79] | |
| Mauritania | 70 | 20 | IgG ELISA | [78] | |
| Mauritania | 70 | 0 | IgM ELISA | [78] | |
| New Zealand | 67 | 0 | RPHI | [57] | |
| Niger | 271 | 3 | IgG ELISA | [21] | |
| Oman | 34 | 3 | IgG ELISA | [46] | |
| Pakistan | 46 | 0 | CF | [43] | |
| Pamirs | 266 | 0 | AGDP | [36] | |
| Romania (Tulcea, northern Dobrogea) | 471 | 27.8 | IgG ELISA | [33] | |
| Russia (Astrakhan Oblast) | NR | 0.3 | CF, AGDP | [69] | |
| Senegal | 942 | 10.4 | IgG ELISA | [83] | |
| Somalia | 12 | 50 | IgG ELISA | [47] | |
| Somalia | 28 | 0 | RPHI | [57] | |
| Sudan | 1972 | 4.3 | RPHI | [57] | |
| Tajikistan | 614 | 2.6 | AGDP | [36] | |
| Tajikistan (northern) | 379 | 0 | AGDP | [36] | |
| Tajikistan (central) | 82 | 4.9 | AGDP | [36] | |
| Turkey | 95 | 3.2 | RPHI | [57] | |
| Turkey (Marmara region) | 160 | 31.8 | IgG ELISA | [10] | |
| United Arab Emirates | 30 | 0 | IgG ELISA | [47] | |
NR, not reported; FRM, formerly; SSR, Socialist Soviet Republic; AGDP, agar gel diffusion precipitation; CF, complement fixation; ELISA, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay; IFA, immunofluorescence assay; Pos, seropositivity reported; RPHI, reverse passive hemagglutination inhibition assay.
*Personal communication with Drs. Zhihong Hu and Yujiang Zhang for species breakdown of sample count
†Sample numbers and results not differentiated by animal.