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. 2016 Jan 7;10(1):e0004210. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004210

Table 2. CCHFV seroprevalence in wild animals.

Class Order Common name Scientific name Country (Region) of Specimen Origin Seroprevalence Test Reference
n %
N/A N/A Misc. wild animals N/A East Africa (Kenya, Uganda) 162 1.9 AGDP [45]
Aves Anseriformes Common teal, Eurasian teal Anas crecca Turkmenistan (FRM Turkmen SSR, Gasan-Kuli region) 1 0 AGDP [32]
Aves Anseriformes Red-billed teal Anas erythrorhyncha South Africa 9 0 RPHI [17]
Aves Anseriformes Yellow-billed duck Anas undulata South Africa 91 0 RPHI [17]
Aves Apodiformes Little swift Apus barbatus South Africa 15 0 RPHI [17]
Aves Charadriiformes Caspian long-legged plover Charadrius spp. Turkmenistan (FRM Turkmen SSR, Gasan-Kuli region) 11 0 AGDP [32]
Aves Charadriiformes Eurasian woodcock Scolopax rusticola Turkmenistan (FRM Turkmen SSR, Gasan-Kuli region) 1 0 AGDP [32]
Aves Charadriiformes Gull Larus spp. Albania (Kukes) 6 0 IgG ELISA [50]
Aves Charadriiformes Grey plover Pluvialis squatarola Turkmenistan (FRM Turkmen SSR, Gasan-Kuli region) 2 0 AGDP [32]
Aves Charadriiformes Red-backed sandpiper, dunlin Erolia alpina, Calidris alpina Turkmenistan (FRM Turkmen SSR, Gasan-Kuli region) 4 0 AGDP [32]
Aves Charadriiformes Redshank Tringa spp. Turkmenistan (FRM Turkmen SSR, Gasan-Kuli region) 5 0 AGDP [32]
Aves Charadriiformes Sanderling Calidris alba Turkmenistan (FRM Turkmen SSR, Gasan-Kuli region) 4 0 AGDP [32]
Aves Charadriiformes Snowy plover Charadrius nivosus Turkmenistan (FRM Turkmen SSR, Gasan-Kuli region) 10 0 AGDP [32]
Aves Ciconiiformes Abdim’s stork Ciconia abdimii South Africa 7 0 RPHI [17]
Aves Columbiformes Eurasian collared dove Streptopelia decaocto Albania (Kukes) 6 0 IgG ELISA [50]
Aves Columbiformes European turtle dove Streptopelia turtur Albania (Kukes) 1 0 IgG ELISA [50]
Aves Columbiformes Laughing dove Stigmatopelia senegalensis South Africa 14 0 RPHI [17]
Aves Columbiformes Rock dove Columba livia Albania (Kukes) 6 0 IgG ELISA [50]
Aves Columbiformes Pigeons/doves Columba spp. Albania (Kukes) 5 0 IgG ELISA [50]
Aves Galliformes Helmeted guineafowl Numida meleagris South Africa 37 5‡ CELISA [28]
Aves Galliformes Rock partridge Alectoris graeca Albania (Kukes) 3 0 IgG ELISA [50]
Aves Gruiformes Common moorhen Gallinula chloropus meridionalis South Africa 13 0 RPHI [17]
Aves Misc. species n/a n/a South Africa 32 0 RPHI [17]
Aves Passeriformes Cape sparrow Passer melanurus melanurus South Africa 5 0 RPHI [17]
Aves Passeriformes Eurasian magpie Pica pica Russia (Rostov Oblast) NR 1 animal AGDP, IHI [102] in [6]
Aves Passeriformes Eurasian tree sparrow Passer montanus Albania (Kukes) 1 0 IgG ELISA [50]
Aves Passeriformes Common starling Sturnus vulgaris Albania (Kukes) 1 0 IgG ELISA [50]
Aves Passeriformes Hooded crow Corvus corone cornix Albania (Kukes) 5 0 IgG ELISA [50]
Aves Passeriformes House sparrow Passer domesticus Albania (Kukes) 5 0 IgG ELISA [50]
Aves Passeriformes South masked weaver Ploceus velatus inustus South Africa 16 0 RPHI [17]
Aves Passeriformes Red bishop Euplectes orix South Africa 110 0 RPHI [17]
Aves Passeriformes Red-billed quelea Quelea quelea South Africa 95 0 RPHI [17]
Aves Passeriformes True thrushes Turdus spp. Albania (Kukes) 1 0 IgG ELISA [50]
Aves Passeriformes Typical warblers Sylvia spp. Albania (Kukes) 1 0 IgG ELISA [50]
Aves Passeriformes Woodchat shrike Lanius senator Albania (Kukes) 1 0 IgG ELISA [50]
Aves Pelecaniformes Cattle egret Bubulcus ibis South Africa 39 0 RPHI [17]
Aves Pelecaniformes African sacred ibis Threskiornis aethiopicus aethiopicus South Africa 14 0 RPHI [17]
Aves Struthioniformes Ostrich Struthio camelus South Africa 9 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Black wildebeest Connochaetes gnou South Africa, Zimbabwe 30 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Blesbok Damaliscus dorcas South Africa, Zimbabwe 23 8.7 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Blue wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus South Africa, Zimbabwe 51 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Blue wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus South Africa 31 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus South Africa, Zimbabwe 8 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus South Africa 1 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Red river hog Potamochoerus porcus South Africa, Zimbabwe 3 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Duiker Sylvicapra grimmia South Africa, Zimbabwe 12 8.3 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Duiker Sylvicapra grimmia South Africa 1 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Common eland Taurotragus oryx South Africa, Zimbabwe 127 46 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Gemsbok Oryx gazella South Africa, Zimbabwe 13 46.2 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis South Africa, Zimbabwe 3 100 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis South Africa 44 23 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Grey rhebok Pelea capreolus South Africa, Zimbabwe 1 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Cape grysbok Raphicerus melanotis South Africa, Zimbabwe 13 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Lichtenstein’s hartebeest Sigmoceros lichtensteinii South Africa 1 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius South Africa, Zimbabwe 6 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius South Africa 15 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Impala Aepyceros melampus South Africa, Zimbabwe 211 1.4 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Impala Aepyceros melampus South Africa 47 11 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Klipspringer Oreotragus oreotragus South Africa, Zimbabwe 1 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Greater kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros South Africa, Zimbabwe 78 21.8 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Greater kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros South Africa 4 50 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Mountain reedbuck Redunca fulvorufula South Africa, Zimbabwe 3 33.3 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Nyala Tragelaphus angasii South Africa, Zimbabwe 5 40 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Nyala Tragelaphus angasii South Africa 1 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Red hartebeest Alcelaphus buselaphus South Africa, Zimbabwe 6 16.7 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Southern reedbuck Redunca arundinum South Africa, Zimbabwe 24 4.2 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Roan antelope Hippotragus equinus South Africa, Zimbabwe 2 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Roan antelope Hippotragus equinus South Africa 8 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Sable antelope Hippotragus niger South Africa 49 6 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Sable antelope Hippotragus niger South Africa, Zimbabwe 28 32.1 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Springbok Antidorcas marsupialis South Africa, Zimbabwe 69 1.4 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Steenbok Raphicerus campestris South Africa, Zimbabwe 12 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Suni Neotragus moschatus South Africa 4 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Common tsessebe Damaliscus lunatus South Africa 2 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Common tsessebe Damaliscus lunatus South Africa, Zimbabwe 1 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Warthog Phacochoerus aethiopicus South Africa, Zimbabwe 40 5 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Warthog Phacochoerus aethiopicus South Africa 21 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Artiodactyla Waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus South Africa, Zimbabwe 9 44.4 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora Aardwolf Proteles cristatus South Africa, Zimbabwe 4 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora Banded mongoose Mungos mungo South Africa, Zimbabwe 1 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora Bat-eared fox Otocyon megalotis South Africa, Zimbabwe 10 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora Black-backed jackal Canis mesomelas South Africa, Zimbabwe 6 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora Cape fox Vulpes chama South Africa, Zimbabwe 1 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora Cape grey mongoose Herpestes pulverulentus South Africa, Zimbabwe 1 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora Caracal Felis caracal South Africa, Zimbabwe 17 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus South Africa, Zimbabwe 1 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus South Africa 14 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Carnivora Clawless otter Aonyx capensis South Africa, Zimbabwe 1 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora Fox Vulpes spp. Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR) 5 0 CF, AGDP [76]
Mammalia Carnivora Common genet/small-spotted genet Genetta genetta South Africa 1 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Carnivora Common genet/small-spotted genet Genetta genetta South Africa, Zimbabwe 10 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora Genet Genetta g. senegalensis Senegal NR Positive [73] in [6]
Mammalia Carnivora Honey badger Mellivora capensis South Africa, Zimbabwe 1 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora Leopard Panthera pardus South Africa, Zimbabwe 1 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora Leopard Panthera pardus South Africa 6 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Carnivora African lion Panthera leo South Africa 116 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Carnivora Red fox Vulpes vulpes Russia (Rostov Oblast) 5 40 IHI (neg by AGDP) [102] in [6]
Mammalia Carnivora Red fox Vulpes vulpes Turkmenistan NR Positive NR [103] in [6]
Mammalia Carnivora Pallas’s cat Felis manul (now Otocolobus manul) Turkmenistan NR Positive NR [103] in [6]
Mammalia Carnivora Small spotted cat Felis nigripes South Africa, Zimbabwe 1 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora Striped polecat Ictonyx striatus South Africa, Zimbabwe 5 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora Suricate Suricata suricatta South Africa, Zimbabwe 3 33.3 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora Water mongoose Atilax paludinosus South Africa, Zimbabwe 1 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora African wildcat Felis lybica South Africa, Zimbabwe 3 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Carnivora African wild dog Lycaon pictus South Africa 62 5 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Carnivora Yellow mongoose Cynictis penicillata South Africa, Zimbabwe 7 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Cetartiodactyla African buffalo Syncerus caffer South Africa, Zimbabwe 287 20 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Cetartiodactyla African buffalo Syncerus caffer South Africa 312 10 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Chiroptera Bats Misc. spp. France 19 15.3 AGDP [104]
Mammalia Chiroptera Large mouse-eared bat Myotis blythii omari Iran NR Positive AGDP [9]
Mammalia Chiroptera Common noctule Nyctalus noctula Iran NR Positive AGDP [9]
Mammalia Erinaceomorpha Hedgehog Misc spp. Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR) 4 0 CF, AGDP [76]
Mammalia Erinaceomorpha Long-eared hedgehog Hemiechinus auritus Turkmenistan (FRM Turkmen SSR) NR Positive AGDP [103]; [105] in [6]
Mammalia Erinaceomorpha South African hedgehog Erinaceus frontalis South Africa, Zimbabwe 8 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Hyracoidea Rock hyrax Procavia capensis South Africa, Zimbabwe 19 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Insectivora Dark-footed forest shrew Myosorex cafer South Africa, Zimbabwe 2 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Insectivora Elephant shrew Elephantulus spp. South Africa, Zimbabwe 112 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Insectivora Musk shrew Crocidura spp. South Africa, Zimbabwe 23 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Insectivora Round-eared elephant shrew Macroscelides proboscideus South Africa, Zimbabwe 31 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Lagomorpha Cape hare Lepus capensis South Africa, Zimbabwe 62 22.6 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Lagomorpha Cape hare Lepus capensis Turkmenistan NR Positive CF, AGDP [103] in [6]
Mammalia Lagomorpha European hare Lepus europaeus Russia (Rostov Oblast) 20 20 IHI (neg by AGDP) [102] in [6]
Mammalia Lagomorpha European hare Lepus europaeus Hungary 198 6 IgG ELISA, IFA [23]
Mammalia Lagomorpha Greater red rock hare Pronolagus crassicaudatus South Africa, Zimbabwe 13 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Lagomorpha Hare Lepus spp. South Africa, Zimbabwe 49 14.3 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Lagomorpha Hare Lepus spp. South Africa 63 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Lagomorpha Hare Lepus spp. Albania (Kukes) 4 0 IgG ELISA [50]
Mammalia Lagomorpha Hare Lepus spp. Bulgaria 33 3 AGDP [56]
Mammalia Lagomorpha Hare Lepus spp. Iran NR Positive NR [106] in [6]
Mammalia Lagomorpha Jameson’s red rock hare Pronolagus radensis South Africa, Zimbabwe 4 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Lagomorpha Red rock hare Pronolagus spp. South Africa, Zimbabwe 9 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Lagomorpha Scrub hare Lepus saxatilis South Africa, Zimbabwe 131 14.5 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Lagomorpha Smith’s red rock hare Pronolagus rupestris South Africa, Zimbabwe 25 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Perissodactyla Black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis South Africa 5 40 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Perissodactyla Black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis South Africa, Zimbabwe 5 60 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Perissodactyla Burchell’s zebra Equus burchelli South Africa, Zimbabwe 93 17 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Perissodactyla White rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum South Africa, Zimbabwe 8 50 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Perissodactyla White rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum South Africa 31 68 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Perissodactyla Zebra Equus burchelli South Africa 28 7 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Primata Chacma baboon Papio ursinus Kenya 226 0 AGDP [77]
Mammalia Primata Chacma baboon Papio ursinus South Africa 21 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Primata Chacma baboon Papio ursinus South Africa, Zimbabwe 289 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Primata Vervet monkey Cercopithecus pygerythrus South Africa, Zimbabwe 233 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Primata Vervet monkey Cercopithecus pygerythrus South Africa 1 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Proboscidea African bush elephant Loxodonta africana South Africa, Zimbabwe 211 0.5 RHPI [13]
Mammalia Proboscidea African bush elephant Loxodonta africana South Africa 23 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Rodentia African marsh rat Dasymys incomtus South Africa, Zimbabwe 1 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia Angoni vlei rat Otomys angoniensis South Africa, Zimbabwe 1 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia Brown rat Rattus norvegicus South Africa, Zimbabwe 6 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia Brown rat Rattus norvegicus Pakistan 9 22.2 CF [43]
Mammalia Rodentia Karoo bush rat Otomys unisulcatus South Africa, Zimbabwe 52 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia Bushveld gerbil Tatera leucogaster South Africa, Zimbabwe 61 9.8 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia Cape ground squirrel Xerus inauris South Africa, Zimbabwe 37 2.7 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia Coypu Myocastor coypus Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR) 156 0 CF, AGDP [36,76]
Mammalia Rodentia Gerbil Meriones crassus Iran NR Positive AGDP [9]
Mammalia Rodentia Great gerbil Rhombomys opimus Turkmenistan (FRM Turkmen SSR, Bakharden region) 18 0 AGDP [32]
Mammalia Rodentia Highveld gerbil Tatera brantsii South Africa, Zimbabwe 224 2.2 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia House mouse Mus musculus South Africa, Zimbabwe 11 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia House rat Rattus rattus South Africa, Zimbabwe 40 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia House rat Rattus rattus Pakistan 54 1.9 CF [43]
Mammalia Rodentia Indian bush rat Golunda ellioti Pakistan 1 0 CF [43]
Mammalia Rodentia Indian bush rat Golunda ellioti Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR) 16 0 CF, AGDP [36,76]
Mammalia Rodentia Indian desert jird Meriones hurrianae Pakistan 33 9 CF [43]
Mammalia Rodentia Indian gerbil Tatera indica Pakistan 47 19 CF [43]
Mammalia Rodentia Indian palm squirrel Funambulus pennanti Pakistan 2 0 CF [43]
Mammalia Rodentia Lesser bandicoot rat Bandicota bengalensis Pakistan 2 0 CF [43]
Mammalia Rodentia Libyan jird (red-tailed) Meriones libycus Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR) 4 0 CF, AGDP [76]
Mammalia Rodentia Long-clawed ground squirrel Spermophilopsis leptodactylus Turkmenistan (FRM Turkmen SSR, Bakharden region) 1 0 AGDP [32]
Mammalia Rodentia Long-tailed marmot Marmota caudata Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR, Murgab region) 288 0 AGDP [36]
Mammalia Rodentia Long-tailed marmot Marmota caudata Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR, central) 275 0 AGDP [36]
Mammalia Rodentia Misc. rodents Iraq 35 14.2 CF [35]
Mammalia Rodentia Misc. rodents Iran 175 2.9 AGDP [45]
Mammalia Rodentia Multimammate mouse Mastomys spp. (coucha, natalensis) South Africa, Zimbabwe 245 0.3 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia Muskrat Ondatra zibethicus Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR, northern) 35 0 CF, AGDP [36,76]
Mammalia Rodentia Namaqua gerbil Desmodillus auricularis South Africa, Zimbabwe 58 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia Namaqua rock rat Aethomys namaquensis South Africa, Zimbabwe 95 1.1 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia Cape porcupine Hystrix africaeaustralis Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR) 1 0 CF, AGDP [76]
Mammalia Rodentia Cape porcupine Hystrix africaeaustralis South Africa, Zimbabwe 8 12.5 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia Cape porcupine Hystrix africaeaustralis South Africa 2 0 CELISA [28]
Mammalia Rodentia South African pouched mouse Saccostomus campestris South Africa, Zimbabwe 3 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia South African springhare Pedetes capensis South Africa, Zimbabwe 33 12.1 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia Pygmy mouse Mus minutoides South Africa, Zimbabwe 8 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia Red veld rat Aethomys chrysophilus South Africa, Zimbabwe 35 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia Short-tailed bandicoot rat Nesokia indica Pakistan 7 0 CF [43]
Mammalia Rodentia Small five-toed jerboa Allactaga spp. Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR) 2 0 CF, AGDP [76]
Mammalia Rodentia Griselda’s striped grass mouse Lemniscomys griselda South Africa, Zimbabwe 5 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia Soft-furred rat Rattus (Millardia) meltada Pakistan 2 0 CF [43]
Mammalia Rodentia Four-striped grass mouse Rhabdomys pumilio South Africa, Zimbabwe 344 0.6 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia Acacia rat Thallomys paedulcus South Africa, Zimbabwe 2 0 RPHI [13]
Mammalia Rodentia Turkestan rat Rattus pyctoris Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR) 8 0 CF, AGDP [76]
Mammalia Rodentia Vlei rat Otomys irroratus South Africa, Zimbabwe 36 0 RPHI [13]
Reptilia Squamata Blunt-nosed viper Macrovipera lebetina Tajikistan 1 0 CF, AGDP [76]
Reptilia Squamata European legless lizard (sheltopusik) Pseudopus apodus Tajikistan (FRM Tajik SSR) 4 (or 5) 0 CF, AGDP [36,76]
Reptilia Testudinata Horsfield’s tortoise Testudo horsfieldii Tajikistan 60 1.6%‡ AGDP [6,36]

‡ Only known report of seropositive result in taxonomic order.

AGDP, agar gel diffusion precipitation; CELISA, competitive ELISA; CF, antibody complement fixation; IHI, indirect hemagglutination inhibition test; N/A, not applicable; NR, not reported; RPHI, reverse passive hemagglutination-inhibition assay; FRM, formerly; SSR, Soviet Socialist Republic.