TABLE 2.
Mean A1C (%) by Participant Characteristics
| Participant Characteristics | Mean (SD) | n | P |
| Sex | 0.745 | ||
| Male | 8.6 (1.8) | 24 | |
| Female | 8.7 (1.5) | 35 | |
| Race | 0.016 | ||
| African American or Hispanic | 9.5 (1.7) | 14 | |
| White | 8.3 (1.5) | 43 | |
| Education | 0.004* | ||
| Some high school | 9.5 (1.5) | 8 | |
| High school degree or some college | 9.0 (1.7) | 31 | |
| Associate’s degree or higher | 7.8 (1.3) | 20 | |
| Annual household income (USD) | 0.568 | ||
| <20,000 | 9.1 (1.7) | 19 | |
| 20,000–39,999 | 8.4 (1.7) | 17 | |
| 40,000–79,999 | 8.9 (1.7) | 9 | |
| ≥80,000 | 8.3 (1.5) | 9 | |
| Medical insurance | 0.005* | ||
| Medicaid or none | 9.7 (1.7) | 7 | |
| Medicare | 8.7 (1.7) | 26 | |
| Private or Workers’ Compensation | 8.2 (1.4) | 26 | |
| Injection method | 0.736 | ||
| Pen | 8.6 (1.6) | 44 | |
| Syringe | 8.8 (1.7) | 15 | |
| Diabetes type | 0.034 | ||
| Type 1 | 8.0 (1.0) | 13 | |
| Type 2 | 8.9 (1.8) | 46 | |
| Insulin regimen | 0.567 | ||
| Fixed dose | 9.2 (1.0) | 7 | |
| Multiple injections with algorithm | 8.7 (1.8) | 48 | |
| Insulin-to-carbohydrate ratio | 8.1 (0.9) | 4 | |
| Confident in determining correct dose | 0.005* | ||
| Not at all | — | 0 | |
| Somewhat | 9.6 (0.9) | 10 | |
| Moderately | 9.7 (2.4) | 9 | |
| Very | 8.2 (1.4) | 40 | |
| Confident in proper injection | 0.115* | ||
| Not at all | — | 0 | |
| Somewhat | 9.8 (0.5) | 4 | |
| Moderately | 9.1 (2.2) | 6 | |
| Very | 8.5 (1.6) | 49 | |
| Administers correct insulin dose | 0.334* | ||
| Always | 8.5 (1.8) | 33 | |
| Usually | 8.9 (1.6) | 18 | |
| Sometimes or never | 9.0 (1.2) | 8 | |
| Administers insulin at correct times | 0.007* | ||
| Always | 8.0 (1.2) | 17 | |
| Usually | 8.7 (1.7) | 29 | |
| Sometimes or never | 9.6 (1.8) | 13 | |
| Insulin adjustment required | 0.296 | ||
| Always | 9.2 (2.1) | 13 | |
| Usually | 8.3 (1.5) | 18 | |
| Sometimes or never | 8.7 (1.5) | 28 | |
| Number of hypoglycemic episodes in the past year | 0.712 | ||
| 0 | 8.7 (1.7) | 52 | |
| ≥1 | 8.9 (1.0) | 7 | |
| Diabetes numeracy: total correct | 0.116* | ||
| 0–1 | 9.1 (1.8) | 23 | |
| 2 | 8.5 (1.7) | 20 | |
| 3 | 8.3 (1.2) | 16 | |
| Skin problems at injection site | 0.208 | ||
| None | 8.5 (1.5) | 36 | |
| Lipohypertrophy and other problems | 9.0 (23) | 23 | |
| Rotates injection sites | 0.359 | ||
| Always | 8.6 (1.7) | 43 | |
| Not always | 9.0 (1.5) | 15 |
*
P values associated with test for linear trend.