Table 1.
Age adjusted distribution (mean±standard error or n(%)) of potential AMD risk factors among CAREDS participants by healthy lifestyle score.
| Variables | Healthy Lifestyle Score, Full sample (n=1,663)
|
Healthy Lifestyle Score, Diet stable sample (n=728)
|
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 4 – 6 | 0 – 2 | P-value | 4 – 6 | 0 – 2 | P-value | |
|
|
|
|
||||
| N | 769 | 440 | 353 | 196 | ||
|
| ||||||
| Demographics | ||||||
|
| ||||||
| Age group*, % | 0.02 | 0.67 | ||||
| ≤69 | 357 (46%) | 230 (52%) | 202 (57%) | 115 (59%) | ||
| 70–74 | 199 (26%) | 113 (26%) | 76 (22%) | 43 (22%) | ||
| ≥75 | 213 (28%) | 97 (22%) | 75 (21%) | 38 (19%) | ||
| Ethnicity, % white | 746 (97%) | 433 (99%) | 0.07 | 341 (97%) | 192 (96%) | 0.20 |
| Education, % | <.0001 | <.0001 | ||||
| High school | 125 (16%) | 137 (30%) | 56 (16%) | 57 (27%) | ||
| College | 356 (47%) | 224 (51%) | 164 (46%) | 104 (54%) | ||
| Postcollege studies | 288 (37%) | 79 (18%) | 133 (38%) | 35 (17%) | ||
|
| ||||||
| Lifestyle | ||||||
|
| ||||||
| Physical activity, METs/week | 23 ± 0.5 | 5 ± 0.6 | <.0001 | 23 ± 1 | 6 ± 1 | <.0001 |
| Smoking, pack-years, % | <.0001 | <.0001 | ||||
| 0 | 592 (77%) | 90 (21%) | 266 (76%) | 32 (15%) | ||
| 0–7 | 157 (20%) | 117 (25%) | 77 (22%) | 55 (26%) | ||
| >7 | 20 (3%) | 233 (54%) | 10 (3%) | 109 (56%) | ||
| Alcohol, g/day | 0.07 | 5E-04 | ||||
| 0 | 319 (41%) | 169 (38%) | 149 (42%) | 62 (29%) | ||
| >0 to <4 | 235 (31%) | 118 (27%) | 106 (31%) | 49 (24%) | ||
| ≥ 4 | 215 (28%) | 153 (35%) | 98 (27%) | 85 (44%) | ||
| Total sunlight exposure (last 20 years), Maryland sun-years | 0.83 ± 0.02 | 0.82 ± 0.02 | 0.75 | 0.8 ± 0.02 | 0.8 ± 0.03 | 0.94 |
|
| ||||||
| Ocular factors | ||||||
|
| ||||||
| Macular pigment density | 0.38 ± 0.01 | 0.34 ± 0.01 | 0.002 | 0.40 ± 0.01 | 0.36 ± 0.02 | 0.05 |
| AMD | ||||||
| Early, % | 138 (17%) | 83 (21%) | 0.27 | 53 (15.0%) | 37 (19.4%) | 0.16 |
| Large drusen, % | 111 (15%) | 63 (17%) | 0.52 | 43 (12.5%) | 27 (14.7%) | 0.39 |
| Pigmentary abnormalities, % | 59 (8%) | 47 (13%) | 0.04 | 23 (7.37%) | 20 (11.7%) | 0.09 |
| Advanced AMD, % | 11 (1.3%) | 12 (3.1%) | 0.06 | 2 (0.51%) | 2 (1.23%) | 0.52 |
| Early or Advanced AMD, % | 149 (19%) | 95 (23%) | 0.13 | 55 (15.5%) | 39 (20.3%) | 0.14 |
|
| ||||||
| Medical factors | ||||||
|
| ||||||
| Body Mass Index (BMI), kg/m2 | 26 ± 0.2 | 29 ± 0.3 | <.0001 | 25.7 ± 0.3 | 28.5 ± 0.4 | <.0001 |
| Hormone therapy, % | 0.16 | 1.00 | ||||
| Never | 253 (32%) | 147 (34%) | 121 (34%) | 63 (30%) | ||
| Past | 91 (12%) | 66 (15%) | 43 (12%) | 29 (14%) | ||
| Current | 425 (56%) | 227 (51%) | 189 (54%) | 104 (53%) | ||
|
| ||||||
| Diet | ||||||
|
| ||||||
| Modified Healthy Eating Index - 2005 | 68 ± 0.2 | 60 ± 0.3 | <.0001 | 68.0 ± 0.3 | 59.7 ± 0.4 | <.0001 |
| Lutein and Zeaxanthin, mcg/day | 2723 ± 60 | 1712 ± 80 | <.0001 | 2759 ± 94 | 1614 ± 126 | <.0001 |
| Total omega-3 fatty acids, g/day | 1.2 ± 0.02 | 1.4 ± 0.03 | <.0001 | 1.19 ± 0.04 | 1.38 ± 0.05 | 0.002 |
| Fruit intake, servings/day | 2.6 ± 0.05 | 1.6 ± 0.1 | <.0001 | 2.6 ± 0.1 | 1.6 ± 0.1 | <.0001 |
| Vegetable intake, servings/day | 3.0 ± 0.1 | 2.0 ± 0.1 | <.0001 | 3.0 ± 0.1 | 1.8 ± 0.1 | <.0001 |
| β-Carotene, μg/day | 5282 ± 115 | 3346 ± 153 | <.0001 | 5305 ± 166 | 3051 ± 223 | <.0001 |
| Vitamin C, mg/day | 137 ± 2 | 93 ± 3 | <.0001 | 135 ± 3 | 93 ± 5 | <.0001 |
| Vitamin D, mcg/day | 6.4 ± 0.1 | 5.1 ± 0.2 | <.0001 | 6.2 ± 0.2 | 4.9 ± 0.3 | 3E-04 |
| Vitamin E, mg/day | 8.8 ± 0.2 | 7.9 ± 0.2 | 0.001 | 8.7 ± 0.2 | 7.7 ± 0.3 | 0.01 |
| Zinc, mg/day | 12 ± 0.2 | 10 ± 0.2 | <.0001 | 12.1 ± 0.3 | 9.8 ± 0.4 | <.0001 |
| Supplement use | ||||||
| Multivitamin, % | 351 (45%) | 179 (41%) | 0.13 | 168 (47%) | 92 (45%) | 0.94 |
| Lutein or lutein + zeaxanthin†, % | 17 (2.1%) | 13 (3.4%) | 0.31 | 5 (1%) | 5 (2%) | 0.30 |
|
| ||||||
| Serum values | ||||||
|
| ||||||
| Lutein + zeaxanthin (trans), μmol/L | 0.35 ± 0.01 | 0.27 ± 0.01 | <.0001 | 0.36 ± 0.01 | 0.28 ± 0.01 | <.0001 |
|
| ||||||
| Genes | ||||||
|
| ||||||
| CFH Y402H (rs1061170) | 0.19 | 0.29 | ||||
| TT | 294 (38%) | 156 (36%) | 138 (39%) | 64 (33%) | ||
| TC | 360 (47%) | 209 (47%) | 156 (45%) | 101 (49%) | ||
| CC | 115 (15%) | 75 (17%) | 58 (16%) | 31 (15%) | ||
| ARMS2 (rs10490924) | 0.42 | 0.63 | ||||
| CC | 465 (60%) | 254 (58%) | 219 (63%) | 115 (58%) | ||
| AC | 266 (35%) | 167 (38%) | 117 (33%) | 77 (38%) | ||
| AA | 36 (5%) | 18 (4%) | 15 (4%) | 3 (1%) | ||
| CFI (rs10033900) | 0.53 | 0.39 | ||||
| GG | 208 (27%) | 114 (25%) | 99 (29%) | 51 (25%) | ||
| GA | 378 (49%) | 215 (49%) | 175 (49%) | 95 (46%) | ||
| AA | 182 (24%) | 111 (26%) | 78 (22%) | 50 (26%) | ||
| CFB/C2 (rs641153) | 0.53 | 0.24 | ||||
| AA/AG | 123 (16%) | 76 (18%) | 51 (15%) | 36 (20%) | ||
| GG | 646 (84%) | 364 (82%) | 301 (85%) | 160 (78%) | ||
| C3 (rs2230199) | 0.87 | 0.23 | ||||
| CC | 34 (4%) | 16 (4%) | 15 (5%) | 9 (4%) | ||
| GC | 244 (32%) | 143 (32%) | 119 (34%) | 55 (29%) | ||
| GG | 490 (64%) | 281 (64%) | 218 (62%) | 132 (64%) | ||
*
Not age adjusted.
†
Use of single lutein, or lutein and zeaxanthin, supplements of dose ≥ 1 mg/day for ≥ 2 years.