Table 1.
Constructs and Variables Studied and Data Sources Used to Operationalize Constructs
| Types of Influence | Construct | Variables (Geographic Scale) | Data Source(s) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Social | Availability of sex partners | Male:female sex ratio for adults (18–64 yrs; ZIP, county, MSA) | 2010 Decennial Census1, 2 |
| Racial/ethnic composition | Percent of total population who are non- Hispanic white, non-Hispanic black/ African-American, or Latino (ZIP) | American Community Survey (ACS) 5-year Estimates (2007–2011) | |
| Exposure to violence | Rate of reported violent crimes, per 1000 residents (county, MSA) | Numerator (reported number of violent crimes, as defined by the FBI): 2009 Inter- university Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR) county-level detailed arrest and offense data. Denominator (population): ACS 5-year Estimates (2007–2011) | |
| Racial/ethnic residential segregation | Black Isolation Index (MSA)3 | 2010 US Decennial Census | |
| Latino Isolation Index (MSA)3 | 2010 US Decennial Census | ||
| Economic | Exposure to economic disadvantage | Median household income (ZIP; county; MSA) | ACS 5-year Estimates (2007–2011) |
| Percent of households below federal poverty line (ZIP; county; MSA) | ACS 5-year Estimates (2007–2011) | ||
| Percent of adults (≥16 yrs) in labor force who are unemployed (ZIP; county; MSA) | ACS 5-year Estimates (2007–2011) | ||
| Percent of adults (≥25 yrs) without a high school diploma or general equivalency diploma (ZIP; county; MSA) | ACS 5-year Estimates (2007–2011) | ||
| Income inequality | Gini Coefficient of Income Inequality (MSA)4 | 2010 Decennial Census | |
| Health and law enforcement interventions | Spatial access to drug- and HIV-related programs | Density of HIV testing sites per square mile (ZIP) | Numerator (testing sites): CDC’s 2009 National HIV Prevention Program Monitoring & Evaluation database Denominator (square miles): US Census Tiger Files |
| Spatial access to substance abuse treatment programs, (a) overall and (b) specifically to methadone maintenance programs (MMTPs; ZIP) | Described in the text. | ||
| Spatial access to syringe exchange programs (SEP) | Described in the text. | ||
| Access to general health care | Percent of adults (18–64 yrs) who are uninsured (county) Percent of residents living in a medically underserved area (county) |
2012–2013 Area Health Resource File5 2013 Health Professional Shortage Area Dataset1, 6 | |
| HIV epidemic among PWID7 | HIV prevalence among PWID | HIV prevalence data for 2002 were drawn from the Community Vulnerability and Response among drug-user related HIV/AIDS8 | |
| Exposure to law enforcement | Arrest rate for hard drug possession9, per 1000 adults (18–64 yrs; county, MSA) | Numerator (possession arrests): 2009 ICPSR county-level detailed arrest and offense data); Denominator (adults 18–64 yrs): ACS 5-year Estimates (2007–2011) | |
| Arrest rate for possession of any drug, per 1000 adults (18–64 yrs; county, MSA) | Numerator (possession arrests): 2009 ICPSR county-level detailed arrest and offense data Denominator (adults 18–64 yrs): ACS 5-year estimates (2007–2011) |
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| Jail incarceration rate, per 1000 adults (18–64 yrs; MSA) | Numerator (jail inmates): 2010 Decennial census Denominator (adults 18–64 yrs): 2010 Decennial Census |
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| Policies governing syringe access | Law permits purchase of syringes without a prescription (state) | Des Jarlais’ Robert-Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF) study of laws governing over the counter (OTC) sales of syringes | |
| Law permits possession of a syringe without a prescription (state) | |||
| Law permits SEPs to operate (state) | |||
| Health and Law enforcement expenditures | Per capita expenditures on police (MSA) | Numerator (expenditures in USD): 2007 Census of Governments County Area Finances File Denominator (total population): US Census Bureau Population Estimates Program |
|
| Per capita expenditures on health (MSA) | |||
| Per capita expenditures on corrections (MSA) | |||
| Physical | Access to alcohol | Density per square mile of businesses licensed to sell alcohol for off-premises consumption (ZIP) | Numerator (premises): 2009 U.S Census Bureau’s Zip Code Business Patterns Denominator (square miles): US Census Tiger Files |
| Exposure to abandoned buildings | Density per square mile of abandoned property, (a) overall, and of (b) residential units, and (c) commercial properties (ZIP) | Numerator (housing or commercial properties): 2009 United States Postal Service (USPS) Delivery Statistics Product Denominator (square miles): US Census Tiger Files |