TABLE 1.
Human milk components modulate TLR signaling1
| Molecules in human milk | Identified in milk | TLR signaling pathways modulated | References |
| sTLR signal pathway inhibitors | |||
| sTLR2 | Yes | Anti-inflammatory via TLR2 | (44, 45) |
| sCD14 | Yes | Anti-inflammatory via TLR2/4 | (46, 47) |
| sTLR4 | No | Anti-inflammatory via TLR4 | (48, 49) |
| sTLR5 | No | Anti-inflammatory via TLR5 | (50) |
| Glycoproteins | |||
| Lactadherin | Yes | Anti-inflammatory (TLR4) | (51–53) |
| Lactoferrin | Yes | Anti-inflammatory via TLR4 | (54, 55) |
| Unknown protein (>80 kDa) | Yes | Proinflammatory via TLR4 | (56) |
| Peptides | |||
| β-defensin 2 | Yes | Anti-inflammatory via TLR7 | (57) |
| Oligosaccharides | |||
| 3′-GL | Yes | Anti-inflammatory via TLR3 | (58) |
| 2′-GL | Yes | Anti-inflammatory via TLR4 (CD14)/STAT3/SOCS2 | (3) |
| LNFP III | Yes | Proinflammatory via TLR4/ ERK/MAPK | (59) |
| 3SL | Yes | Proinflammatory via TLR4 | (60) |
| DSLNT | Yes | Anti-inflammatory; TLR targets not known | (61) |
1
CD, cluster of differentiation; DSLNT, disialyllacto-N-tetraose; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; LNFP III, lacto-N-fucopenaose III; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; sCD, soluble cluster of differentiation; SOCS, suppressor of cytokine signaling; STAT, signal transducer and activator of transcription; sTLR, soluble toll-like receptor; TLR, toll-like receptor; 2′-FL, 2′-fucosyllactose; 3′-GL, 3′-galactosyllactose; 3SL, sialyl (α2,3) lactose.