Table 1.

Different examples of sensing techniques with their advantages and disadvantages.

Transducer	Technique	Advantages	Disadvantages
Electrochemical	Amperometric [43,44]	Simplicity, miniaturization, low cost	Need redox elements to enhance the current production; time consuming; sensitive to the surrounding environment
	Potentiometric [45,46]	Real-time detection; the possibility of continuous analysis on different analytes	Sensitive to the surrounding environment; time consuming; sensitive to temperature
	Impedimetric [47,48]	Simplicity and real-time detection	Sensitive to the surrounding environment; bulky devices required; require theoretical stimulation for data analysis
Optical	Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) [49,50]	Real-time detection; reliable, high sensitivity	Sensitive to the surrounding environment; surface modification as one of the main challenges; bulky optical devices required
Mechanical	Cantilever [51,52]	Real-time detection; ability to detect more than one analyte with high sensitivity	Sensitive to the surrounding environment; sensitive to temperature; bulky devices required
	Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) [53,54]	Real-time detection; simplicity; high compatibility with point-of-care (POC) devices	Sensitive to the surrounding environment; sensitive to temperature and stress