Figure 2.

Activation of autophagy could occur in several diabetes-related diseases, including pancreatic β cells, muscle insulin sensitivity and liver gluconeogenesis related syndromes or diabetes cardiomyopathy and diabetes nephropathy. Subsequently, mTORC1 and TSC1 expression were included in the regulation of pancreatic β cells. In skeletal muscle, ULK1 or FoxO3 and LC3 might affect insulin sensitivity as well as in liver gluconeogenesis, which has a strong association with autophagy activation. Additionally, LKB1, CAMKK and SOGA are the special sensors involved in liver gluconeogenesis studied recently. And AMPK-RHEB-TOC1 is the significant signaling pathway in diabetes cardiomyopathy and nephropathy. All of these are linked with energy sensor, AMPK.