Table 1.
Neuroimaging studies of autonomic function and their subject characteristics (in chronological order).
| Study | Challenges | Control/healthy group | Patient group | Technical |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gozal et al., 1995b | Inspiratory loading | N = 11 | n/a | fMRI |
| Age 27–48 years | ||||
| Gozal et al., 1996 | Expiratory loading | N = 11 | n/a | fMRI |
| 1 female, 10 male | ||||
| Age 28–46 years | ||||
| Harper et al., 1998 | Expiratory loading; forehead cold pressor; hand cold pressor | N = 11 | n/a | fMRI |
| Age 22–55 years | ||||
| King et al., 1999 | Hand grip, maximal inspiratory breath hold, Valsalva | N = 5 male | n/a | fMRI |
| Age 19–46 years | ||||
| Nowak et al., 1999 | Hand grip | N = 8 | n/a | CBF with PET |
| 4 female, 4 male | ||||
| Age 26 [23–30] years | ||||
| Critchley et al., 2000 | Hand grip | N = 6 male | n/a | CBF with PET |
| Age 31 ± 3 years | ||||
| Harper et al., 2000 | Forehead cold pressor, hand cold pressor, expiratory loading | N = 11 | n/a | fMRI |
| 3 female, 8 male | ||||
| Age 22–37 years | ||||
| Henderson et al., 2002 | Valsalva | N = 12 | n/a | fMRI |
| 1 female, 11 male | ||||
| Age 47 ± 10 [30–58] years | ||||
| Henderson et al., 2003 | Valsalva | N = 15, male | OSA N = 8, male | fMRI |
| Age 45 ± 12 [30–58] years | Age 45 ± 11 [31–63] years | |||
| Harper et al., 2003 | Forehead cold pressor | N = 16, male | OSA N = 10, male | fMRI |
| Age 46 ± 12 [28–64] years | Age 47 ± 10 [30–60] years | |||
| Macey et al., 2003b | Expiratory loading | N = 16, male | OSA N = 9, male | fMRI |
| Age 46 ± 11 [29–63] years | Age 45 ± 12 [28–64] years | |||
| Macey et al., 2004a | Expiratory loading | N = 14 children | CCHS N = 13 children | fMRI |
| 7 female, 7 male | 6 female, 7 male | |||
| Age 10.9 ± 2.2 [8–15] years | Age 10.9 ± 2.3 [8–15] years | |||
| Topolovec et al., 2004 | Hand grip, maximal inspiration, Valsalva | N = 8 | n/a | fMRI |
| 3 female, 5 male | ||||
| Age 22–28 years | ||||
| Kimmerly et al., 2005 | Lower body negative pressure | N = 8 male | n/a | fMRI |
| Age 24 ± 2 years | ||||
| Macey et al., 2005a | Forehead cold pressor | N = 14 children | CCHS N = 14 children | fMRI |
| 7 female, 7 male | 6 female, 7 male | |||
| Age 11.0 ± 2.2 [8–15] years | Age 10.9 ± 2.3 [8–15] years | |||
| Macey et al., 2005b | Forehead cold pressor | N = 16 male | HF N = 6, male | fMRI |
| Age 48 ± 11 years | Age 49 ± 12 years | |||
| Macey et al., 2006 | Inspiratory loading | N = 11 male | OSA N = 7 male | fMRI |
| Age 47 ± 4 years | Age 46 ± 5 years | |||
| Kimmerly et al., 2007 | Lower body negative pressure | N = 16 | n/a | fMRI |
| 8 female, 8 male | ||||
| Age 22–24 ± 4 years | ||||
| Wong et al., 2007a | Hand grip | N = 17 | n/a | fMRI |
| 9 female, 8 male | ||||
| Age 24–25 ± 4 years | ||||
| Wong et al., 2007b | Hand grip | N = 17 | n/a | fMRI |
| 9 female, 8 male | ||||
| Age 25 ± 4 years | ||||
| Serber et al., 2007 | Valsalva | N = 14 male | HF N = 5 | fMRI |
| Age 47 ± 11 years | 2 female, 3 male | |||
| Age 50 ± 10 years | ||||
| Napadow et al., 2008 | Hand grip | N = 7 | n/a | fMRI with ECG gating |
| 3 female, 4 male | ||||
| Age 21–33 years | ||||
| Goswami et al., 2011 | Hand grip, muscle stimulation | N = 12 | n/a | fMRI |
| 8 female, 4 male | ||||
| Age 25 ± 3 years | ||||
| Goswami et al., 2012 | Lower body negative pressure | N = 15 | n/a | fMRI |
| 6 female, 9 male | ||||
| Age 25 ± 3 [18–31] years | ||||
| Macey et al., 2012 | Foot cold pressor, hand grip, Valsalva | N = 57 | n/a | fMRI |
| 20 female, 37 male | ||||
| Age 47.3 ± 8.8 years | ||||
| Ogren et al., 2012 | Valsalva | N = 33 | HF N = 16 | fMRI |
| 10 female, 23 male | 5 female, 11 male | |||
| Age 52.3 ± 7.7 years | Age 54.4 ± 8.1 years | |||
| Kimmerly et al., 2013 | End-expiratory breath hold, Mueller maneuver | N = 16 | n/a | fMRI |
| 9 female, 7 male | ||||
| Age 35 ± 14 [20–65] years | ||||
| Norton et al., 2013 | Hand grip | N = 29 (“responders”) | N = 15 (“non-responders”) | fMRI |
| 11 female, 20 male | 7 female, 8 male | |||
| Age 48 ± 19 years | Age 56 ± 19 years | |||
| Richardson et al., 2013 | Cold pressor | N = 24 adolescents | n/a | fMRI |
| 11 female, 13 male | ||||
| Age 15.5 ± 2.0 [11–18] years | ||||
| Macey et al., 2014 | Foot cold pressor, hand grip, Valsalva | N = 57 | OSA N = 37 | Global BOLD |
| 20 female, 37 male | 6 female, 31 male | |||
| Age 47.3 ± 8.8 years | Age 53.9 ± 8.4 years | |||
| Bohr et al., 2015 | Valsalva | N = 45 elderly | n/a | T2* fMRI |
| 24 female, 21 male | ||||
| Age median 80 [75–89] years | ||||
| Norton et al., 2015 | Hand grip | N = 23 | N = 17 coronary artery disease | fMRI |
| 8 female, 15 male | ||||
| 4 female, 13 male | ||||
| Age 63 ± 11 years | Age 59 ± 9 years | |||
| Wu et al., 2015 | End-expiratory and end-inspiratory breath hold, Valsalva | N = 9 | n/a | fMRI |
| 4 female, 5 male | ||||
| Age 29 ± 8 years |
Relevant challenges are noted. Ages are mean ± sd [range] where available. “fMRI” refers to BOLD fMRI.